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Chapter 3 Mediterranean Pirates After
the Collapse of the Roman Empire Introduction This chapter deals with Saracen pirates who dominated the Mediterranean after the collapse of the West Roman Empire, commonly referred to as the Roman Empire. But before discussing the Saracen pirates who looted the Mediterranean Sea off the Italian Peninsula while Muslims ruled the Middle and Near East and North Africa, we first need to know about the late Roman Empire and its decline. Moving straight into the era of Muslims and Saracen pirates without understating the late Roman Empire would only provide a partial understanding of what led to their rise. Any particular historical event is a result of the interaction of numerous complicated factors throughout a long history. The appearance of Saracen pirates is also a historical event brought by a power vacuum after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire is often considered to be synonymous with ancient European history itself. Saracen pirates were totally different in nature from previous Mediterranean pirates. Piracy before the collapse of the Roman Empire was an internal problem of the Roman Empire, and in many cases, these were Christian pirates attacking other Christians. However, in the Mediterranean which came under Muslim control, Muslims from North Africa attacked the Italian Peninsula and the Christians under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire The brilliant history of the Roman Empire over a millennium ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. The Eastern Roman Empire, based in the capital of Constantinople, would continue to exist until the city was captured by Osman Turks in 1453. The Byzantine Empire, built on the Greek Orthodox religion and Byzantine culture, was a totally different empire from the Western Roman Empire. In this sense, the Roman Empire is widely considered to have ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The territory of the Roman Empire at its height extended to Spain in the west, Asia Minor and the Near East in the east, and North Africa in the south. Extending north into modern-day Europe, the Rhine River to the west and the Danube River to the east had served as the frontlines of the empire over several hundred years. Romans built military posts along the frontlines and stationed troops to defend them. The frontlines were not only defense lines, but also boundary lines which divided the land between what Romans considered ‘civilization’ and the lands inhabited by tribal peoples. The Roman Empire was a civilized society where people enjoyed economic prosperity, academics, and arts flourished, and the value of individuals under the rule of law was highly regarded. By a stark contrast, beyond the frontlines, there was a barbaric world which had remained tribal states and eked out a living from aggressive actions and sackings. For Romans, it was vital to formulate laws and institutions which could be universally applied to various nations with different cultures, ethnicity and religions under their rule. Besides, it was also essential to build traffic networks to connect Rome with its provinces across several continents. The Roman roads, built initially for military purposes, enabled the rule of the emperor to reach every corner of its territory, and at the same time, any event that happened across the provinces could be reported swiftly to the emperor in Rome. As the saying goes: “all roads lead to Rome.” The Roman roads operated like a body’s nervous system, allowing troops to move swiftly in the event of rebellions in the provinces or the aggressive actions of barbarians across the frontlines. In the period of the “five good emperors” (96–180), the Roman Empire enjoyed its most majestic days. The political situation remained stable, the economy prospered, and the empire’s territorial reach was at its height. The empire’s defenses were so secure that barbarians could not attempt to cross the frontlines. The values of Rome were regarded as universal. The era of Pax Romana, which meant peace or order established by Romans, was at hand. Following a period of peace and expansion during the rule of the five good emperors, the Roman Empire entered its so-called ‘Crisis of the Third Century.’ After the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (120–180), a number of unqualified rulers ascended to the throne. Throughout this period, several proclaimed themselves emperor simultaneously, setting off a series of assassinations. Concurrently, rebellions in Palmyra (an ancient city in what is now Syria) and Gaul (mainly modern-day France and Belgium) broke out. The Roman Empire was challenged by the largest crisis it had faced since its foundation. Meanwhile, the spirit of noblesse oblige of the ruling class, along with their open-mindedness, gradually faded away, and the economy was on the wane. As the wealth inequality grew, social conflicts intensified. Romans were no longer able to maintain adequate military forces to defend the frontlines, while barbarian aggression was growing. At the same time, a new civilization was born at the frontier of the empire. The barbarians who had looted and pillaged the territories of the Roman Empire grew more civilized as they integrated advanced Roman culture and technologies through wars with Romans. The barbarians increased the intensity and frequency of anti-Roman aggression, while evolving into tribal states with systemic ruling organizations and military forces. It is not easy to pinpoint exactly when the decline of the Roman Empire started. However, what is apparent is that the Roman Empire, after the Crisis of the Third Century, started to decline rapidly in the late fourth century. The Roman Empire in decay was incapable of financing military forces to defend its huge frontlines. The massive provinces across several continents had been a symbol of expansion of the Roman Empire, but their defense became an extremely heavy burden for the Roman Empire as it fell into decline. As a consequence, the barbaric mercenaries who had lived in the Roman territories took the place of Romans. This meant that the national defense of Rome itself was actually handed over to the tribes that had been its enemies. The Roman Empire, which had become impossible for a single emperor to rule, was eventually divided into the Western and the Eastern empires in 395. The Western Roman Empire was totally vulnerable to the barbarians who invaded deep inside the territories. In the end, the brilliant millennium of the Roman Empire came to an end in 476 with attacks led by tribal chief Odoacer. Advent of Muslims Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, German barbarians occupied the Italian Peninsula and North Africa. Justinian the Great of the Byzantine Empire, who sought to revive the empire’s greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire, recovered the Italian Peninsula from the barbarians over 20 years. After he died, however, the southern territories of the historical Western Roman Empire were occupied by the Longobards. As such, the Italian Peninsula was divided into two parts – one part ruled by the Eastern Roman Empire and the other, by the Longobards. Meanwhile in the Arabic Peninsula, which had been under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire, one of the most seismic events in world history took place. That is, Islam was founded. The Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, received the revelations of God delivered by Gabriel at the age of 40 while he prayed in a mountain cave, named Hira. After he started preaching in 613, Islam spread rapidly throughout neighboring regions, the religion spreading like wildfire through a dry field. Muhammad, who proclaimed “God is One” was persecuted by Meccan polytheists, and he escaped to Medina in 622 in the Hegira which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Mohammad conquered Mecca with his followers in 629. Islam expanded into a dominating force that ruled nearly all the Arabian Peninsula in less than 20 years since its foundation. Following Mohammad’s death in 632, the Islam community led by the Caliph, a supreme religious, political and military leader, evolved towards an enormous empire as it continued to conquer the neighboring regions. At last, the Caliph completed the conquest of the entire Arabian Peninsula in 634, and in the following year, Damascus in Syria. The Byzantine Empire sent troops to recover its province but was defeated, and as a result, Damascus came under the full control of Islam. The Islamic forces advanced to Mesopotamia in the east, West Asia to the west and Egypt to the south and conquered Alexandria in 642, making Egypt an Islamic state. The Islamic forces continued to conquer North Africa, bringing most of the region under its control by 689. The conquest of the entirety of North Africa in a short period was made possible in large part because of its flat geography, allowing Islamic forces to move swiftly on their Arabian horses. The grain belt, which had supplied one-third of the Romans’ food, came under the rule of Islam. Islamic Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula Following the conquest of North Africa, the Islamic force crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to advance upon the Iberian Peninsula in 711. The Islamic force, which attempted to go into France through the Iberian Peninsula, was blocked by the Frankish Kingdom after the Franks won the Battle of Poitiers in the Pyrenees Mountains in 732. As a consequence, the ambitious Islamic goal of expansion into Western Europe failed. Afterwards, the Muslims stayed in the Iberian Peninsula for about 780 years, until they were forced to leave Granada, the last bastion of Muslims, in 1492 during the Reconquista – otherwise known as the Christians’ recovery of those conquered territories from Muslim rule. Assumption is not allowed in history. However, supposing that the Franks had been defeated in the battle, Western Europe would have been under the rule of Islam, and the history of modern Europe – and by extension, the history of the world – would be greatly changed. The tremendous wave of the Islamic forces, represented by the phrase “A sword on the right hand, Quran on the left hand,” swept through Central Asia, conquering the Sassanid Persian Empire (226–651). Most of the former territories of the Roman Empire came under control of Islam, except for Western and Eastern Europe. As a consequence, Christians and Muslims confronted each other across the Mediterranean Sea. A totally different circumstance from the era of the Roman Empire, in which Christianity was the state religion, appeared. The conditions for Saracen pirates, who left a big scar in the history of Europe and the Mediterranean over several centuries, emerged. Saracen Pirates The term ‘Saracen’ is derived from ‘Saraceni’ that ancient Greeks and Romans had used in reference to Arabs. Initially, Europeans had called Arab Muslims ‘Saracens.’ Later on, they referred to all Muslims living in North Africa, including Berbers and Moors, as Saracens. Despite the fact that North Africa was a fertile region, the Arabs, Berbers and Moors who occupied North Africa had no interest in or aptitude for farming in settlements. Instead, the nomads in desserts were attracted to the plundering of Christians across the Mediterranean. At this juncture, one might be curious of how a desert people, not familiar with sea-faring, could become engaged in looting by sailing across the harsh Mediterranean Sea. The answer to the question might be found in the facts that Arabs developed the highest level of science and math as well as technology at the time, even to the extent that they used compasses. They employed Greeks who had the highest level of navigation skills, as crews. Additionally, they felt they had found a righteous cause in looting Christians, making piracy a front in a holy war against non-Muslims. It was known that Islamic pirates first attacked a Christian community in 652. The Muslim ships that had departed from Alexandria raided and looted Siracusa, Sicily, capturing 800 locals as prizes. The pirates sold the captives at slave markets. This event was recorded as the beginning of the Saracens’ lootings across the Mediterranean, which would persist for the next millennium. The Saracen pirates, based in cities on the coast of North Africa, such as Cairuan, Carthage and Tunis, continued to attack the Sicily Island. While the Islamic forces advanced to the Iberian Peninsula, their plundering ceased for a while until they resumed in 725. During the period between the 7th and 8th centuries, the Mediterranean Sea was ‘the Sea of Islam.’ The Mediterranean Sea off the Italian Peninsula under the attacks of Saracen pirates turned into the ‘Sea of Lawlessness’ itself. Despite the constant aggression of Saracen pirates, the Byzantine Empire did not have naval power to protect its shipping from pirate attacks, and it also lacked the capability to combat the pirates. As for the Byzantine Empire, which had lost the Near East, North Africa and Asia Minor to Islamic force, even the security of Constantinople was at risk. The Byzantine Empire was also under attack from northern Slavs. Such instability was also the case for the Longobards who had controlled the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. They still remained divided and thus had no ability to deal with the pirates. Under these circumstances, the seas off the Italian Peninsula were exposed to the uncurbed lootings of Saracen pirates. The vulnerability of navigation off coastal areas to pirate attacks resulted in the shrinking of sea-borne trade. Merchant ships that had been actively engaged in shipping valuable goods across the Mediterranean gradually disappeared. Fishing vessels operated only inshore, instead of going to distant waters. As such, the pirates were no longer able to rely on their typical method of plundering the ships traveling offshore. Thus, they opted to raid settlements or towns in coastal areas. This was quite a different method from piracy attacks in the Age of Discovery, in which pirates engaged in marauding merchant ships passing through major sea routes. The ships that Saracen pirates used for looting were small galleys, known as the ‘fusta,’ which were mainly propelled by rowing. Their speed, mobility, capability to move without wind and their ability to operate in shallow water made them ideal for piracy. They took Arabian horses aboard the fustas and rode them inland, looting coastal areas and returning with plunder. The fusta was a small size ship, but it required at least 16 to 20 rowers. The rowers were mostly Christians captured during raids. Other Christians were sold at slave markets to serve as rowers for other Muslim ships, or they were sent to the military after they were forced to convert to Islam. Otherwise, they were sent to concentration camps, called ‘bathhouses.’ Romans had a strong tradition of communal bathing, and had built a large number of bathhouses across their territories. The bathhouses built in North Africa changed to concentration camps after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Saracen pirates, with a small fleet of less than 10 ships that had been concentrated in Sicily and its coastal area gradually expanded their activities towards the southern coastal areas of France and Italy. The pirates, based on islands like Sardinia and Corsica, used the seasonal summer winds to propel their ships on raiding missions to the coastal areas of Italy. They expanded their activity even further, getting closer to the pope’s stronghold in Rome. Residents in these areas of the Italian Peninsula could no longer expect that the emperor in Constantinople would protect them. Thus, they sought to protect the security of themselves, their families and their towns without outside help. Torre Saracena Residents in coastal areas built watchtowers as a way of protecting themselves, to spot pirate ships’ approach early and give themselves time to escape. Many old pirate watchtowers still exist to this day. They are called Torre Saracena in Italian, which means the ‘Tower of Saracens,’ and they dot the coastal cities in Italy and along the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily. Today they are tourist attractions that provide a scenic view of the blue Mediterranean, but their history tells of the pain that came with living in fear of Saracen pirates. It was difficult to tell whether approaching ships were friendly or not, as the invention of the telescope was still many years off; in many cases, pirate ships were only identified when they came near to the shore. The pirates did not fly the now-famous ‘Jolly Roger,’ skull and swords flag – that symbol came into being several hundred years later during the Age of Discovery. Neither did they fly any flag of piracy, or even the Islamic symbol of the crescent and star. Speaking of the symbolic flag of Islam, it was derived from historic events of Islam. On the night when the Prophet Muhammad had received revelations at the mountain cave Hira, a crescent and stars were twinkling in the dark sky. On the night when Muhammad escaped to Medina from Mecca to avoid persecution, there were also a crescent and stars in the dark sky. For this reason, the crescent was regarded by Islam as a symbol of truth, ushering light through darkness. Osman Turks were the first to use the flag of a crescent and stars. Following the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, the Osman Turks had built a great empire that stretched over much of Asia, Africa and Europe. Thus, for the Europeans who came under attack by Islamic pirates, the flag of a crescent and stars symbolized only terror.