Читать книгу Metal Additive Manufacturing - Ehsan Toyserkani - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Global public interest trends for “3D Printing”.Figure 1.2 AM chain, enabling physical parts from digital design.Figure 1.3 Complex parts made by AM. The spherical nest has three spheres in...Figure 1.4 Lightweight structure made by AM. In this typical bracket, the we...Figure 1.5 Consolidation of around 300 parts to one part printed by AM.Figure 1.6 Functionally graded materials (FGMs); (a) Laser DED with multiple...Figure 1.7 A fiber optic embedded in a metallic cutting part using a combine...Figure 1.8 A mold insert with (a) conformal cooling channels, (b) conformal ...Figure 1.9 LDED used to rebuild turbine blades.Figure 1.10 Total AM market size by segment that includes all technologies (...Figure 1.11 Metal AM market size in AMPower Report.Figure 1.12 Timeline for adopted, emerging, and future applications of AM.Figure 1.13 Most important metal AM processes versus part size, complexity, ...Figure 1.14 (a) Dental crowns printed by LPBF(b) joint implants printed ...Figure 1.15 LPBF‐made combustion chamber (left) and the engine in finished c...Figure 1.16 Small‐size, lightweight, one‐piece, AM‐made antenna.Figure 1.17 Hydraulic parts made for the oil and gas industry.Figure 1.18 (a) Ford's custom anti‐theft wheel lock being printed in EOS PBF...Figure 1.19 MX3D smart bridge (a) main structure (b) side wall.Figure 1.20 (a) Three different geometries made of Ti‐6Al‐4V by different pr...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Schematic of (a) LPBF and (b) EB‐PBF.Figure 2.2 A view of melt pool and ejected spatters in LPBF.Figure 2.3 Samples of metal parts made via PBF for (a) aerospace, (b) toolin...Figure 2.4 The CT scan results of (i) cylindrical, (ii) triangular prism, an...Figure 2.5 Schematics of (a) powder‐fed laser DED with lateral nozzle(b)...Figure 2.6 Applications of DED: (a) Near‐net‐shape production.(b) Freefo...Figure 2.7 A sample of repaired rotating part using Optomec® LENS DED system...Figure 2.8 A schematic of binder jetting technology.Figure 2.9 ExOne binder jetting technology in Action.Figure 2.10 HP multi‐jet fusion technique steps.Figure 2.11 Sample part made using BJ technology.Figure 2.12 Comparison of traditional binder jetting and Desktop Metal's bin...Figure 2.13 Schematic of material extrusion system.Figure 2.14 A sample metal filament from Desktop Metal. In contrast to polym...Figure 2.15 Visual prototypes made using (a) 17‐4 PH stainless steel on Mark...Figure 2.16 Schematic of material jetting technology.Figure 2.17 XJET's NanoParticle Jetting technique is one of the emerging met...Figure 2.18 Sample parts made using XJET system.Figure 2.19 Ultrasonic consolidation mechanism.Figure 2.20 FGM parts made using Fabrisonic's ultrasonic consolidation syste...Figure 2.21 Process design parameters for LDED, LPBF, and BJ techniques.Figure 2.22 Melt pool and clad/track bead geometrical parameters.Figure 2.23 Relative density vs. energy for various ferrous alloys (a) relat...Figure 2.24 Normalized density vs. specific energy techniques.Figure 2.25 Common scanning strategies.Figure 2.26 (a) Keyhole porosity and its formation mechanism.(b) Lack of...Figure 2.27 The combined effect of scanning velocity and beam power on the d...Figure 2.28 The relationship between melt‐pool geometry and hatching distanc...Figure 2.29 Porosity of LPBF‐made parts from AlSi10Mg as a function of hatch...Figure 2.30 Classification of powder particle properties.Figure 2.31 The relationship between particle and flow properties and flowab...Figure 2.32 Different wire‐feeding orientations.Figure 2.33 Illustration of the staircase effect.Figure 2.34 The maximum layer thickness as a measure of the overlap height o...Figure 2.35 Cross section of a part as the print layer: contour/skin and cor...Figure 2.36 (a, b) Illustration of up‐skin vs down‐skin in PBF process.(...Figure 2.37 The concept of supports structures, three different support shap...Figure 2.38 Printability of the fluids based on dimensionless Reynolds and W...Figure 2.39 The effects of (a) undersaturation and (b) oversaturation on BJ‐...Figure 2.40 H13 tool steel powder agglomeration as a result of oversaturatio...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Laser powder bed fusion system (LPBF).Figure 3.2 Laser Powder‐Fed (LPF) system.Figure 3.3 Schematic of a binder jetting system setup.Figure 3.4 Illustration of the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimula...Figure 3.5 Two‐level system scheme.Figure 3.6 A three‐level system scheme.Figure 3.7 Scheme of a four‐level system.Figure 3.8 The main components of a laser are shown. The active medium or ga...Figure 3.9 Solid‐state Laser scheme.Figure 3.10 Energy‐level diagram for Nd3+ doped in YAG.Figure 3.11 (a) Longitudinally excited and (b) transversely excited CO₂ lase...Figure 3.12 Laser transitions between vibrational levels in CO₂.Figure 3.13 Liquid dye laser schematic.Figure 3.14 Diode laser scheme.Figure 3.15 Scheme of a typical fiber laser.Figure 3.16 Schematic of fiber lasers that include FBGs and beam couplerFigure 3.17 Energy‐level diagram of the erbium‐doped fiber.Figure 3.18 Laser employed in laser‐based AM processes (i.e. laser powder be...Figure 3.19 Mode patterns for different TEMs.Figure 3.20 Laser beam profile.Figure 3.21 Schematic of a typical EBM apparatus.Figure 3.22 Electron beam formation schematic.Figure 3.23 Gun electrode types: (a) Tungsten (W) filament, (b) Lanthanum He...Figure 3.24 Electromagnetic Lens.Figure 3.25 Scheme of a mechanical wheel powder feeder.Figure 3.26 Schematic of gravity‐based powder feeders with a rotating wheel ...Figure 3.27 Schematic of gravity‐based powder feeders with a metering wheel....Figure 3.28 Schematic of gravity‐based powder feeders with a lobe gear.Figure 3.29 Schematic of a fluidized bed powder feeder.Figure 3.30 Schematic of a vibratory‐based powder feeder.Figure 3.31 Schematic of a typical lateral nozzle.Figure 3.32 Powder feed profile characteristics.Figure 3.33 Schematic of a typical coaxial nozzle.Figure 3.34 Powder stream at the nozzle exit to a co‐axial nozzle.Figure 3.35 Illustration of a LPBF process system setup.Figure 3.36 Schematic of a lateral wire‐feed system equipped with EBM.Figure 3.37 Schematic of a coaxial wire‐feed system.Figure 3.38 Schematic of a galvo scanner.Figure 3.39 Schematics of (a) piezo and (b) thermal inkjet print heads.Figure 3.40 Typical STL file.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Interaction of a moving heat source and a substrate and the assoc...Figure 4.2 Schematic of phases formed in a mild steel substrate while being ...Figure 4.3 Sinusoidal electromagnetic laser beam: emitted beam, reflected be...Figure 4.4 Graphical concept of the thermal time constant.Figure 4.5 Laser pulse shaping, including pulse width W, pulse energy E, and...Figure 4.6 A typical modulated/pulsed laser beam with rising time, falling t...Figure 4.7 Dependencies of reflectivity to wavelengths, (a) from 200 to 1000...Figure 4.8 Temperature dependencies of reflectivity for Al, Cu, and steel at...Figure 4.9 Dependencies of reflectivity to the angle of incidence for s‐ray ...Figure 4.10 E‐beam interaction with a substrate and the associated signals g...Figure 4.11 Penetration depth versus absorption coefficient for accelerated ...Figure 4.12 Power density and interaction time for various heat source‐based...Figure 4.13 Schematic of physical domains of DED.Figure 4.14 Track cross section created by DED, (a) high dilution, well wett...Figure 4.15 Dynamic and equilibrium wetting angles.Figure 4.16 A schematic of the process zone during LDED powder‐fed. Melting ...Figure 4.17 Geometry and boundary conditions for a typical coaxial nozzle ex...Figure 4.18 Schematic of 3D heat flow during DED used for the development of...Figure 4.19 Balance of energy in PF‐LDED.Figure 4.20 Lumped cross section of single track deposited in LDED.Figure 4.21 Attenuated laser volume in PF‐LDED.Figure 4.22 Lumped temperature distribution at y = 0 for parameters listed i...Figure 4.23 Schematic diagram for laser powder‐fed laser‐directed deposition...Figure 4.24 Inconel 625 powder stream grayscale intensity distribution measu...Figure 4.25 Schematic diagram for melt pool geometry and deposited track [27...Figure 4.26 Schematic diagram of the solidification front in the longitudina...Figure 4.27 Laser beam intensity distribution on the substrate surface: (a) ...Figure 4.28 Melt pool temperature distribution on Inconel 625 substrate surf...Figure 4.29 Real‐time melt pool top surface peak temperature of SS 316L depo...Figure 4.30 Melt pool peak temperature map for SS 316L single‐track depositi...Figure 4.31 Real‐time local thermal profiles at different clad height locati...Figure 4.32 Effect of G and R on the mode and scale of solidification micros...Figure 4.33 Predicted in situ solidification characteristics at different me...Figure 4.34 Schematic of the laser beam, powder stream and substrate interac...Figure 4.35 Sequence of calculation in the proposed numerical model [37]....Figure 4.36 Maximum temperatures for each layer, when = 2 g/min, U = 1.5 m...Figure 4.37 Temperature distribution for the second layer deposition at t = ...Figure 4.38 Energy transformations within the deposition area of a substrate...Figure 4.39 Deposition patterns in wire‐fed EBAM.Figure 4.40 Proposed Hammerstein–Wiener nonlinear structureFigure 4.41 Experimental data: (a) multistep process speed and (b) clad/depo...Figure 4.42 Verification of Hammerstein–Wiener dynamic model using unseen da...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Schematic of LPBF, showing physical phenomena surrounding the mel...Figure 5.2 Heat source models schematics: (a) cylindrical shape; (b) semi‐sp...Figure 5.3 Powder–laser interaction mechanisms.Figure 5.4 Thermophysical properties of bulk and powder material: (a) therma...Figure 5.5 Schematic of (a) keyhole mode and (b) conduction mode. Top figure...Figure 5.6 Temperature gradient mechanism inducing residual stress.Figure 5.7 The laser scanning path used for the case study.Figure 5.8 Geometry and mesh used in the finite element simulation of the ca...Figure 5.9 Ripples of a single track: (a) experimental results and (b) numer...Figure 5.10 Experimental surface of the multiple‐track scanning: (a) microsc...Figure 5.11 Melt pool cross section of a single track from (a) experiment (b...Figure 5.12 Multi‐track melt pool cross sections: (a) experiment and (b) sim...Figure 5.13 Schematic of the theoretical model of the LPF process.Figure 5.14 Electron acceleration between anode and cathode and electric pot...Figure 5.15 Binary head‐on collision of particles in a hexagonal grid model ...Figure 5.16 Three‐dimensional projection of a face‐centered hypercubic latti...Figure 5.17 Phases assigned to different cells in the LB method. The specifi...Figure 5.18 Exponential (60 kV) and constant (120 kV) absorption profiles....Figure 5.19 Melt pool evolution during EB‐PBF processing using the LB method...Figure 5.20 (a) Rain model schematic. (b) Generated powder bed. (c) Relative...Figure 5.21 Gaussian EB model using the constant absorption profile.Figure 5.22 (a) Micro‐scale simulation temperature distribution for a scan l...Figure 5.23 Strain evolution of a part during the build process.Figure 5.24 Comparison between the FEM model and produced parts. It uses the...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Schematic of (a) continuous inkjet printing showing the working m...Figure 6.2 The droplet formation and flight in inkjet printing. The tail of ...Figure 6.3 (a) The thinning of the jet on the onset of droplet formation in ...Figure 6.4 The pinch‐off of liquid column as time passes for a liquid with r...Figure 6.5 Schematic of surface wettability for a droplet of water as a func...Figure 6.6 Droplet impact regimes on dry surfaces.Figure 6.7 Droplet cross section changes as a function of time from impact t...Figure 6.8 Infiltration of the droplet into (a) dry and (b) ‐ (c) pre‐wetted...Figure 6.9 The wetted region imaged using micro‐CT for one droplet dispensed...Figure 6.10 The creation of crater geometry: (a) droplet approaching the sur...Figure 6.11 Schematic of liquid bridge between two identical spherical parti...Figure 6.12 The penetration of a droplet with the impact velocity of 5 m/s i...Figure 6.13 Droplet formation modeling using level‐set method showing the ef...Figure 6.14 (a) Sample D2Q9 LBM.(b) Lattice vectors in a D2Q9 cell.Figure 6.15 Streaming step in LBM.Figure 6.16 Collision step in LBM.Figure 6.17 (a) 2D view of droplet spreading on a smooth surface from initia...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Components of a typical printhead in a ME system.Figure 7.2 HF composite filament at different ME process stages: Metal–polym...Figure 7.3 The schematic view of liquefier and nozzle in ME.Figure 7.4 Schematic of heat transfer region in ME.Figure 7.5 Three pressure drop zones in the nozzle.Figure 7.6 (a) The gap (B) between the filament and liquefier walls filled w...Figure 7.7 (a) Nozzle configuration in a conventional ME (FDM) model and (b)...Figure 7.8 Die swell effect results in an increase in the diameter of the be...Figure 7.9 Schematics of the liquefier entrance.Figure 7.10 (a) Geometry and temperature zones of Serdeczny's model and (b) ...Figure 7.11 (a) Temperature distribution at the liquefier at different times...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 The relationship between four major components of materials scien...Figure 8.2 Conventional manufacturing processes: e.g., casting.Figure 8.3 AM powder production steps [1].Figure 8.4 Schematic of cooling curves during solidification, (a) definition...Figure 8.5 Fe–C phase diagram.Figure 8.6 Continuous cooling transformation diagram for steel.Figure 8.7 Time–temperature profile of a single‐layer AM‐manufactured Ti‐6Al...Figure 8.8 Critical continuous cooling transformation diagram for welded or ...Figure 8.9 Time–temperature diagram presenting the nucleation onset of two d...Figure 8.10 A comparative presentation of the theoretical equilibrium (solid...Figure 8.11 Solidification during inadequate diffusion in liquid and no diff...Figure 8.12 Solute distribution without diffusion in the solid and dissimila...Figure 8.13 Schematic presentation of constitutional supercooling: (a) parti...Figure 8.14 Schematic presentation on the relation between the Gibbs free en...Figure 8.15 (a) The figure depicting the nucleation of a sphere‐shaped parti...Figure 8.16 (a) Solid nucleus connected with substrate metal and liquid. (b)...Figure 8.17 Schematic presentation of the Walton and Chalmers model showing ...Figure 8.18 The graphics showing the growth characteristics and constitution...Figure 8.19 Epitaxial growth of the solidified metal adjacent the fusion lin...Figure 8.20 The schematic diagrams illustrate the modes of solidification pa...Figure 8.21 Occurrence of various solidification structures related to const...Figure 8.22 Change of the temperature in time, throughout the solidification...Figure 8.23 Schematic of the dendrite formation/growth.Figure 8.24 Influence of temperature gradient G and growth rate R on size an...Figure 8.25 Formation mechanism of grains in AM: (a) single track, (b) multi...Figure 8.26 Schematic of (a) Keyhole porosity.(b) Process and gas‐induce...Figure 8.27 Process window for LPBF manufactured Ti‐6Al‐4V alloy.Figure 8.28 Schematic of balling incident appeared by coarsened sphere‐shape...Figure 8.29 Representation of balling phenomenon characterized by small shap...Figure 8.30 The mechanism of liquation cracking in the melt pool area.Figure 8.31 Schematic presentation of the microstructural development and ph...Figure 8.32 Transformation–time–temperature plot for IN718 alloy [79].Figure 8.33 Microstructure of Stellite 12 manufactured through laser‐based A...Figure 8.34 Effect of (a) α‐stabilizing, (b) β‐isomorphous, and (c...Figure 8.35 The graphical presentation of ternary titanium alloys having bot...Figure 8.36 The graphical illustration of thermal profiles.Figure 8.37 Continuous cooling transformation curve for Ti‐6Al‐4v alloy [99]...Figure 8.38 Micro‐hardness values with respect to the secondary arms spacing...Figure 8.39 The micro‐hardness values with respect to the secondary arms spa...Figure 8.40 Microstructure of Ti‐6Al‐4V manufactured by LPBF, (a) after stre...Figure 8.41 Micro‐hardness plot with respect to the alpha lath width for Ti6...Figure 8.42 The property window presents yield strength vs. elongation for v...Figure 8.43 The property window presents yield strength vs. elongation for T...Figure 8.44 The fatigue behavior of (a) 316L and (b) LPBF‐manufactured 17‐4 ...Figure 8.45 The schematic shows the breaking up of Laves phase and split‐up ...Figure 8.46 The fatigue plot shows strain amplitude vs. reversals to failure...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 The production route of metal matrix composites in AM.Figure 9.2 Schematic illustration of the collision between grinding ball and...Figure 9.3 Geometrical presentation of the particle motion trajectory in an ...Figure 9.4 Formation mechanism of TiC reinforced 316L matrix composite, (a) ...Figure 9.5 Microstructure showing the morphology of matrix, interface, and W...Figure 9.6 The schematic diagram shows that the formation mechanism of ferro...Figure 9.7 Schematic presentation for the formation of TiB phase from in‐sit...Figure 9.8 Schematic depiction of the formation mechanism of quasi‐continuou...Figure 9.9 Schematic presentation of the microstructural development in pure...Figure 9.10 Schematic microstructure of the as‐printed Ti‐6Al‐4V/MG composit...Figure 9.11 SEM micrograph showing Ti‐6Al‐4V‐ 3% B₄C composite.Figure 9.12 The schematic diagram illustrates the mechanism of Inconel–TiB₂ ...Figure 9.13 Demonstration of various failure approaches during compressive l...Figure 9.14 (a) The influence of Marangoni flow, (b) TiC particles under int...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Topological and functional integrated design framework for AM....Figure 10.2 Multidiscipline optimization (MDO) for a multifunctional thermal...Figure 10.3 AM‐enable design framework.Figure 10.4 Design workflow for hybrid design solutions by topology optimiza...Figure 10.5 Multifunctional design methodology.Figure 10.6 AM model for product family design.Figure 10.7 Poor and good part orientation for the avoidance of the “curl ef...Figure 10.8 Types of support structures, from left to right: fill, lattice, ...Figure 10.9 Guidance on the use of support structures.Figure 10.10 Modification of circular profile to avoid “dropping effect.”...Figure 10.11 Hollow features printed with the hollow extrusion (a, b) perpen...Figure 10.12 Line‐of‐sight powder removal: (a) small radius, (b) large radiu...Figure 10.13 A feature with (a) sharp corners and (b) smooth corners.Figure 10.14 Design variations showing some thin sections that can encourage...Figure 10.15 The three classifications of structural optimization. (a) Sizin...Figure 10.16 Classification of topology optimization methods.Figure 10.17 How topology optimization transforms the structural form of (a)...Figure 10.18 Influence of volume fraction on interpolation function for SIMP...Figure 10.19 Linear filter for a 2D mesh.Figure 10.20 Classification of design‐dependent loads for topology optimizat...Figure 10.21 Thermomechanically loaded structures (a) with constant temperat...Figure 10.22 Workflow for density‐based topology optimization methods.Figure 10.23 Initial design domain and optimized bridge‐like designs with in...Figure 10.24 Different allowable minimum self‐supporting angles for satisfyi...Figure 10.25 Element density with supporting elements in a 2D FE mesh.Figure 10.26 Optimum designs showing difference in the topologies resulting ...Figure 10.27 Topology‐optimized half MBB beam with AM filter and Heaviside p...Figure 10.28 Optimized designs of an aerospace bracket. The right bracket wa...Figure 10.29 Neighboring elements to element e for a single layer.Figure 10.30 (a) Unconstrained and (b) constrained topology‐optimized cantil...Figure 10.31 Some examples of 2D unit cells.Figure 10.32 Some 3D unit cell types. (a) 3d Hexagon, (b) “X” shape, (c) oct...Figure 10.33 Relationship between a lattice structure and its framework.Figure 10.34 Lattice orientation showing Euler angles α, β, γFigure 10.35 Uniform lattice structure.Figure 10.36 Comparison between (a) uniform and (b) conformal lattices.Figure 10.37 Voronoi‐based lattice structures. (a) Normal Voronoi structure,...Figure 10.38 Design workflow of multiscale geometric modeling of lattice str...Figure 10.39 SIMP results for 0.5 volume fraction with penalty value (a) set...Figure 10.40 Representative structures with a volume fraction of 0.5. (a) So...Figure 10.41 Library of surface‐based unit cells: (a) G (Schoen's Gyroid), (...Figure 10.42 Schwarz's P surfaces (for value of t = 0.37); (a) f_P (x,y,z) ≤ Figure 10.43 Example of a linear material grading for (a) strut‐based BCC la...Figure 10.44 Workflow for RDM method.Figure 10.45 Elements' centroids from strut j.Figure 10.46 Screening process for RDM.Figure 10.47 Effect of build orientation on a dogbone sample. (a) CAD model ...Figure 10.48 Orientation angles for framework build showing support structur...Figure 10.49 Angle threshold of ≤30° of cylindrical axis to building directi...Figure 10.50 Maximum displacement in the framework.Figure 10.51 Maximum residual stress in the framework.Figure 10.52 Volume of support structure used for the build.Figure 10.53 Residual stress and deformation plots for 22.5° rotation about ...Figure 10.54 Inverted Y (a) and Y “tree‐like” (b) structures supporting a th...Figure 10.55 Cantilever CAD geometry supported by lattice structures.Figure 10.56 Unit cell voxel types.Figure 10.57 Designs with intricate features supported by minimal cellular s...Figure 10.58 Workflow for integrated topology optimization and support struc...Figure 10.59 Different support types compared (Part in black and support in ...Figure 10.60 Enhanced workflow of a topology optimization integrated support...Figure 10.61 Workflow for redesign of aerospace bracket.Figure 10.62 Original CAD.Figure 10.63 Topology‐optimized solution and reconstructed design.Figure 10.64 Stress distribution of original design (a) and topology‐optimiz...Figure 10.65 Design domain, boundary, and load conditions.Figure 10.66 Topology‐optimized result from Altair HyperMesh.Figure 10.67 Printed and machined structural members.Figure 10.68 (a and b) Initial denture framework, (c) projection of X‐ray sh...Figure 10.69 Optical images of dental framework's (a) green state (b) sinter...Figure 10.70 Single‐cylinder internal combustion engine.Figure 10.71 Topology optimization of the crank and connecting rod with reco...Figure 10.72 Dynamic response of original (left) and topology‐optimized cran...Figure 10.73 Arbor press assembly.Figure 10.74 Images of printed components (a) base, rack, gear, handle, colu...Figure 10.75 (a) Printed column before cutting from substrate, (b) printed c...Figure 10.76 Design space for framework. The arrows indicate the loads on th...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Concept of closed‐loop control for a typical AM process.Figure 11.2 Light spectrum.Figure 11.3 Schematic diagram of sensor installation for detection melt pool...Figure 11.4 Types of radiations emitted from LPBF and captured by CMOS camer...Figure 11.5 Location of camera and light sources in the build chamber.Figure 11.6 The inline coherent imaging system.Figure 11.7 A computed tomography (CT) setup, showing the X‐Ray source, obje...Figure 11.8 The schematic of the beamline setup within the chamber [45].Figure 11.9 Schematic cross section of P–N photodiode.Figure 11.10 Schematic of in situ sensing equipment integrated on LDED.Figure 11.11 Schematic of the optical system using a pyrometer.Figure 11.12 Schematic of (a) dynamic and (b) condenser microphones.Figure 11.13 The schematic of the surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor.Figure 11.14 The basic schematic of thermocouple.Figure 11.15 Thermocouple sensors placement in LPBF.Figure 11.16 Example of measurement by displacement sensor.Figure 11.17 Schematic of co‐axial and off‐axial setup in LPBF.Figure 11.18 Schematic overview of the feedback loop proposed for LPBF but c...Figure 11.19 Photodiode signal used in LPBF during the scanning using (a) ve...Figure 11.20 Results of in‐process LDED monitoring relationship between aver...Figure 11.21 Typical process zone in LDED and image processing: (a) original...Figure 11.22 PID controller integrated with a threshold and the identified p...Figure 11.23 Data acquisition for temperature signal recording and processin...Figure 11.24 Image segmentation method from initialization (first row) to th...Figure 11.25 Three layerwise optical tomography (OT) images used in LPBFFigure 11.26 Geometry distortion due to the use of a Galvo scanner.Figure 11.27 Concept of absolute limits algorithm.Figure 11.28 Concept of Signal Dynamics algorithm.Figure 11.29 Concept of short‐term fluctuations algorithm.Figure 11.30 Spatter detection: segmentation results based on IsoData, Otsu’...Figure 11.31 Support vector machine method: (a) possible hyperplane and (b) ...Figure 11.32 Neural network: (a) 3 input–1 output neural network and (b) sch...Figure 11.33 A deep learning approach to LPBF based on “Convolutional and Ar...Figure 11.34 ANFIS structure with two inputs and one outputFigure 11.35 Proposed fuzzy logic controller for LDED to control the bead he...Figure 11.36 Typical membership function in fuzzy logic controller used in L...Figure 11.37 Use of K‐means in LPBF: flowchart of the proposed processFigure 11.38 (a) An original image and (b) using K‐means to identify hot spo...Figure 11.39 SOM concept and iterations to map nodes to the input spaceFigure 11.40 2D cross sections of samples showing the distribution of the ar...Figure 11.41 Samples layout on the build plate: (a) R‐series and (b) T‐serie...Figure 11.42 Schematic of the defect detection process in EOSTATE MeltPool M...Figure 11.43 (a) An example of an image generated by the EOSTATE software fo...Figure 11.44 The population and distribution of indications for AL algorithm...Figure 11.45 The percentage of average and standard deviation of indications...Figure 11.46 The amount of shrinkage in the sample: (a) R2 – Location 4, (b)...Figure 11.47 Schematic of (a) a sample that is segmented in 82 batches and (...Figure 11.48 Schematic to compare the CT scan and EOSTATE software results t...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Overview of hazards in additive manufacturing.Figure 12.2 Interaction of optical radiation and various tissues [14].Figure 12.3 (a) Fire triangle and (b) explosion pentagon [3].