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Types of Work and Their Purposes

Over the years, I have heard dozens of reasons for the assignment of homework. Class was cut short, and there wasn’t enough time to finish the lesson. Without homework, students will lose skills over a vacation period. Poor student behavior, poor test performance, or poor preparation for advanced placement calls for additional homework. Students need homework to practice a skill or prepare for a test. Homework is a way for students to practice skills addressed during class, or homework is an extension of the school day. Homework provides discovery work for students (Guskey & Bailey, 2001). The list goes on. However, reasons are not the same as purpose. Ultimately, purpose defines the reason and why it is important for the student to engage in the task.

The word homework is just as global in scope as generic adjectives such as good, big, and nice. Often we fail to more clearly define the purpose of the homework for both the students and ourselves. Are we assigning a task that will provide information about the readiness level of students for the next unit? Are we asking students to do some introductory work so they are ready for class the following day? Are we assigning practice work to ensure that students have a better understanding of concepts or processes introduced in today’s class? Is it also possible to assign a task or project that sums up the skills and concepts learned while providing evidence that students can demonstrate their understanding of recent lessons?

In this chapter, we will assign purpose to homework by dividing it into four main types of student work.

1 Diagnostic

2 Introductory

3 Formative

4 Summative

Diagnostic Work

Diagnostic work serves to identify what students know in advance of a unit of study. It provides students with the opportunity to demonstrate their background knowledge, which is likely necessary for success in the upcoming unit. For example, assessing the understanding of factors in math might precede work on simplifying fractions. Similarly, evaluating students’ knowledge of the concepts of cause and effect would be valuable information to have prior to beginning a social studies unit that concentrates on the causes and effects of certain historical events like World War I, for example. Diagnostic work does not need to be extensive, but it does need to supply the information required for a teacher to make decisions on next steps. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 provide an illustration of diagnostic assignments.

Figure 1.1: Example of diagnostic work—simplifying fractions.

When reviewing the students’ work on finding factors, this form will illustrate whether or not a student understands the concept and whether or not a student can illustrate his or her understanding. It can be used at the beginning of a unit of instruction to evaluate basic understanding prior to going on to numbers with several factors. The student is asked to complete three examples to ensure that he or she is able to repeatedly get a correct response. In the case of this student, he was able to complete numbers two through four accurately. In number one, although he was able to talk about the meaning of a factor, he failed to list all of the factors of twenty-four. This could mean he either didn’t know them or just didn’t include them. This student may need additional opportunities to demonstrate his understanding of factors with larger numbers like thirty-six, sixty-four, or one hundred.

Figure 1.2: Example of diagnostic work—cause and effect.

As the teacher reviews student responses, he or she can quickly evaluate student understanding. Does the student understand that in a sentence or group of sentences the cause does not need to precede the effect? Can the student write sentences in which the cause comes before the effect and other sentences where the cause comes after the effect? The assignment can be used to evaluate whether students can identify cause and effect in something they read, whether they can write a quality sentence illustrating cause and effect, and whether or not they can order the cause and effect in different ways. The directions in this graphic organizer can become more sophisticated depending on the age of the student. For example, it may be preferred that the student write a short paragraph. With a young student, an illustration may be preferable.

Students’ performance on diagnostic work also identifies their strengths and challenges, which the teacher then uses to build lessons that correspond to the associated needs. Such diagnostic work might include specific questions addressing the content. For example, a teacher can use a tool similar to figure 1.3 when beginning to teach a standard that addresses components of a story—plot, character, and setting—to assess prior knowledge. Because the standards are the basis for what is taught in any subject at any grade level, starting with a standard will pinpoint the target on which the lesson or assignment is based. Any story familiar to the student can be chosen for the task. The clarity of students’ responses and the depth of the information provided will help the teacher plan next steps. As a result, teachers will be more knowledgeable of not only the students’ understanding of the vocabulary used but also of their ability to provide focused, detailed information. This type of diagnostic tool is also versatile for elementary and secondary schools because the content is connected to the grade level or course.

The student responses based on the story of Little Red Riding Hood show that the student has a basic understanding of the word plot, is unsure of what characteristic means even though the student is able to provide some examples, and is able to give a fairly detailed example of how setting is important to the story. When describing the plot, the student is superficial in the response. This could mean that she needs to refer back to the story to provide some specific events, or it could mean that she needs additional instruction or exemplars regarding expectations for a good response. Diagnostically, however, the student shows that she has a basic understanding of plot, character, and setting.

Diagnostic work can also be more global in nature, requiring students to list what they know about a given topic as is often done in the popular KWL graphic organizer. A KWL can have several variations; for instance, it can require students to list what they know (K), what they want to know (W), and how they want to learn about the topic (L), rather than the usual approach of listing what they have learned postinstruction. For example, if the next U.S. history unit involves the American Revolution, basic information about what the students already know can be collected and used when planning next steps. The purpose of diagnostic work is to evaluate what students know so that teachers can incorporate those data into what needs to be taught, thus influencing the lesson design. Figure 1.4 (page 8) provides an example of a typical KWL.

The information provided by the student in this KWL immediately tells the teacher that although his knowledge base is limited, the student has an interest in the topic that goes beyond names and dates. The student was able to articulate some specific things he wants to know more about. These components, like how the revolution impacted families, can be incorporated into the lessons that follow. Perhaps the W section can be the basis of some personalized learning and students can design some research that they would be interested in completing and presenting.

Figure 1.3: Example of diagnostic work—plot, character, and setting.

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If the teacher finds an extensive list of information that the student already knows about the KWL topic, differentiation will be needed. What additional information can the student learn about the topic? How can she gain a deeper understanding beyond what was listed? Is there a group of students with the same basis of understanding who might work together? Can learning be personalized to meet their needs? The final column, L, can be used as an assessment following the unit.

Figure 1.4: Example of diagnostic work—American Revolution traditional KWL.

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Figure 1.5 provides a more detailed example of a diagnostic KWL. This example is not unlike the information solicited in the know portion of a traditional KWL, but it offers the student specific statements to spur focused thought. Specific questions may help students provide a more complete listing of the background knowledge they have prior to entering the unit of study.

When students complete brief preassessments, such as that found in figure 1.5, it becomes clear quite quickly which students have a basis of understanding and who has little or no background knowledge. The assessments are short, quick, and designed to give the teacher a fast look at the current knowledge base of students. That information is used in planning lessons. If students have a firm understanding of certain material, additional time can be spent elsewhere.

Figure 1.5: Example of diagnostic work—American Revolution detailed KWL.

When giving students diagnostic work, it is important for them to know to complete the task using only the knowledge and skills they possess, not to look up information and report what they find. Diagnostic work is a preassessment and therefore requires students to demonstrate only their current understanding without additional research.

Introductory Work

An assignment that includes introductory work provides students with the background knowledge needed in order to be successful. For instance, the teacher may provide students with directions to research a specific topic. Another method is for the teacher to provide resources for the students to view, listen to, or read, in order to gather information and increase their knowledge and skills.

Building Background Knowledge

If students are to fully understand the content to be presented, establishing a common knowledge base should be a priority. Building this base prior to the content being presented allows students to develop a greater understanding. For example, if students are preparing to read an article or story about the Iditarod, it would be helpful for them to have background knowledge about location, climate, terrain, weather, and participants. A brief assignment can be given as a way to build understanding (see figure 1.6). In order to make a good use of time, the assignment can be done collaboratively as a group, or perhaps each student in the group can research and report on only one of the questions. Throughout the school year, topics are introduced for which students have varying degrees of understanding. In fact, students in the same classroom often have vastly different experiences. Consider using a similar system to develop a common level of understanding prior to addressing a new topic or unit of study.

Figure 1.6: Building background knowledge—the Iditarod.

This example shows the responses of a student who looked at the assignment as diagnostic work rather than a set of questions that build background knowledge. The main difference is that in the case of diagnostic work we rely on the information a student knows without doing any other investigating. Clarity is important so that the student knows in the case of building background knowledge, he or she uses the resources available to complete the template accurately, showing that he or she is ready to proceed with the story. The template is no longer about opinion, but fact. The student needs to describe the location of Alaska, look it up on a map, find out about whiteout and wind chill and apply them to the state, and so on.

Using Flipped Teaching

Likely the most current example of introductory work is the concept of flipped teaching, also called flipped classroom. Flipped teaching allows the teacher to be with students while they are completing tasks that are usually completed outside of the classroom when the student does not have the benefit of a teacher present. Assignments are often a video of the students’ actual teacher providing the information needed. This method allows the “lecture” to take place outside of class time and the “homework” to be done in the classroom with the resources necessary to experience greater success. The lessons are organized and focused on the standards addressed and the content being taught. Students view the lessons in preparation for the next unit of study or class so that time during the class period can be spent applying the knowledge gained to tasks that will increase understanding (Bergmann & Sams, 2012).

The flipped teaching approach increases the time a teacher has to spend with students during the class and supports and promotes the students in becoming responsible for their own learning. The approach is also intended to increase student engagement during actual class, as students use class time to apply their newfound knowledge and skills and to demonstrate their understanding. Educators using flipped teaching should encourage conversations wherein students explain procedures while sharing and evaluating information.

Although the approach is an interesting and effective twist on traditional classroom instruction, consideration should be given to a few points. Flipped teaching requires students to have computer and Internet access outside of the classroom. If the work is to be done at home, thought should be given to the amount of time students need computer access compared to the number of children in the home who require the same access. This should not deter use of the flipped teaching approach but instead set the expectation that teachers be proactive and gather information about the needs of students prior to implementation. Is Internet access available within the home? What structures will be developed for those students who are not able to access the content in their homes? What devices are available in the home to access the content? Are the students allowed to use the devices?

Figure 1.7 (page 12) provides an example of a simple template to follow when designing flipped lessons. The template is intended to focus on the content and assist students in understanding the purpose of the lesson. In addition, it is designed so that students and teachers recognize their responsibilities when successfully using this approach.

Figure 1.7: Flipped teaching planning template.

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Figure 1.8 provides a brief look at some of the differences between traditional teaching and flipped teaching.

Figure 1.8 Comparison of traditional teaching and flipped teaching.

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Formative Work

Formative assessment by definition is “intimately tied to formal and informal processes in classrooms” (Marzano, 2010, p. 8). The formative assessment process includes collecting evidence of students’ knowledge and performance level, evaluating the outcome of that evidence, and responding to the data in order to meet student needs. Formative assessment can include dozens of possibilities from practice work to exit slips to fist-to-five. Exit slips often include one to three specific questions for the students to answer so that teachers can determine lesson effectiveness and student understanding. The questions are intended to get at the heart of the day’s lesson—for example, “What is one key thing you learned in class today? Provide an example or brief explanation of why it is important. What is one question that you have about the lesson?” The informal feedback procedure fist-to-five asks students to use their hands as a feedback tool—the more fingers raised, the higher the confidence level of the student.

For the purposes of this book, formative work refers to the assignments students are given to demonstrate initial understanding or apply new concepts and skills. Formative work is traditionally thought of as homework and is likely the most prevalent of all types of work given to students. It provides students with the opportunity to practice skills or processes they are learning but have not yet mastered. Teachers and students evaluate results of the work to determine next steps in the learning process, and teachers use the results of the analysis to design the instruction and learning paths needed to master content and processes. Formative work is a meaningful part of the formative assessment cycle, which is illustrated in figure 1.9 (page 14).

Students also have a responsibility in the formative assessment cycle. Self-reflection will assist students in evaluating the steps they need to take to improve their performance and increase understanding. Students often know how they learn best, and they are in control of the effort exuded. To support the formative process, teachers should ask the learners what they can do to increase their understanding and what help is needed from the teacher. Figure 1.10 (page 14) provides an example.

The student identified an area in which to improve and provided specific examples. This would be a perfect opportunity for the student to become acquainted with a thesaurus. Instead of working with her current vocabulary, the student would have a way to research and use both familiar and unfamiliar words. Optionally, the student may be asked to use her reflection and the advice of the teacher to rewrite her story making the suggested changes in regard to word choice.

Figure 1.9: The formative assessment cycle.

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Figure 1.10: Reflection exercise for the formative process.

This reflection can change depending on the focus of the lesson. Sentence structure, topic sentences, concluding paragraph, or any aspect of the piece can be evaluated in this way so that the student reflects on and makes suggestions for his or her own improvement. It is important to read through the reflections so that if misunderstandings occur, the teacher can provide clarification.

Summative Work

When students have had ample opportunity to practice skills and have demonstrated their ability to apply them, summative work is used to provide evidence of their understanding. Students are asked to use their new abilities as they encounter new and different situations. Summative work should be assigned when teachers are confident that students are able to provide a comprehensive demonstration of their understanding. While formative work has provided opportunities for students to practice and for teachers to adjust lessons to meet the needs of individuals and the entire class, summative work verifies that students have reached the targets set for them.

Summative work is used to assess students at any point at which they have the prerequisite skills needed to experience success. Most often these assessments take place during class time. However, students are also regularly engaged in summative projects and performances for which the work is done outside of the classroom. This factor becomes important in chapter 5 when we discuss whether or not homework should impact a report card grade.

Summative work can evaluate a narrow set of knowledge and skills or may incorporate learning from a variety of lessons. For example, teachers can assign a cumulative project or performance task that encompasses multiple standards and extensive content from an entire semester’s worth of material. Or, consider the earlier example about the American Revolution and building background knowledge. After completing the unit, students might demonstrate their understanding of this period in history by creating a way to illustrate the causes and effects of the revolution—perhaps via a video, PowerPoint, visual display, or song. The important thing to understand is that it is not the time and place that the work is completed but the purpose of the assignment that signifies the intent of the performance. Is the work intended to be formative, to provide the students with the opportunity to learn more about a topic or practice newly introduced skills? Or is the purpose for students to demonstrate their understanding of the knowledge and skills that they have acquired? The purpose makes a difference, especially when we consider grading.

Figure 1.11 (page 16) illustrates the difference between formative and summative work assessment.

Figure 1.11: Comparing formative and summative assessment.

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The formative assessment cycle (see figure 1.9 on page 14) can be used with summative work as well. Because the goal is for students to learn the standards and gain the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve grade-level success, even summative work needs to be evaluated with an eye on the formative process. Although the intent is that students have had ample practice opportunities and therefore are ready for summative work, that is not always the case. When students struggle, teachers need to analyze the data and formulate a plan to address individual or small-group needs. A response to the results is necessary if the data indicate that students require additional instruction or practice in order to be successful. This is doable during most of the school year. However, this might not be possible at the end of a course or year. That said, the teacher should analyze the results to see what changes might be made prior to the next time the same content is assessed, even if the instruction is with a new group of students.

Final Thoughts

As previously stated, student work should be categorized by purpose, not location. Figure 1.12 is a review of those purposes and when the work should be administered.

Teachers should provide students with multiple opportunities to practice a new skill or work with new knowledge so that students are not given only one opportunity to demonstrate understanding within units of study. When deemed appropriate, students are given the opportunity to apply what they have learned in a format identified and structured by the teacher. Performance tasks, quizzes, and projects are a few common methods of assessment used for this purpose. Summative assessments should occur at the end of a few days, a week, or longer, depending on the content being addressed. This allows students to prove they understand small chunks of content prior to being asked to demonstrate understanding on large amounts of content.

Figure 1.12: Purposes of student work.

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Figure 1.13 (page 18) provides a flowchart of the instructional cycle. Learning starts with pinpointing the standards and content to be addressed. The teacher then identifies the knowledge and skills necessary to a successful experience and constructs an ending summative experience. The instruction, formative work, and summative work approaches then begin. The two arrows between instruction and formative work indicate that formative work guides instruction and the two alternate as needed to accommodate student success. When students have been given adequate learning and practice experiences, it is time for summative work. At this point, most students should experience success; however, some students may require additional instruction, practice, and another summative assessment. While another summative experience may not be possible during some points of the year, teachers should make every effort to ensure that students have the basis of understanding needed to proceed to the next level of learning.

Figure 1.13: Instructional cycle flowchart.

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Collaborative Team Discussion Questions

Discuss the following questions with your collaborative team. Evaluate current practices, identify the positive aspects being employed, and discuss changes or additions that are valuable to student success. Visit go.solution-tree.com/assessment to download a reproducible version of these questions.

1 What is a benefit of identifying the purpose of the work prior to its design and implementation?

2 Why is it important for students to understand the purpose of the work and how it will impact their learning?

3 How do you know that students have had enough practice and are ready for summative work?

4 What do you do when students are not successful demonstrating understanding on a summative assessment?

5 What are the benefits and drawbacks of flipped teaching?

6 Share your experiences with flipped teaching, or share what is needed for you to try the approach.