Читать книгу The English Village Community - Frederic Seebohm - Страница 14

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Starting with the fact that the fields of the manor of Winslow and its hamlets18 were open fields divided into furlongs and half-acre strips, the chief object of inquiry will be the nature of the holdings of its various classes of tenants.

Demesne and villenage.

In the first place the land of the manor was divided, like that of almost all other manors, into two distinct parts—land in the lord's demesne, and land in villenage.

The land in demesne may be described as the home farm of the lord of the manor, including such portions of it as he may have chosen to let off to tenants for longer or shorter terms, and at money rents in free tenure.

Three-field system.

The land in villenage is also in the occupation of tenants, but it is held in villenage, at the will of the lord, and at customary services. It lies in open fields. These are divided into three seasons, according to the [p023] three-field system. There is a west field, east field, and south field. The demesne land lies also in these three fields,19 probably more or less intermixed, as in many cases, with the strips in villenage, but sometimes in separate furlongs or shots from the latter.

Throughout the pages of the manor rolls, in recording transfers of holdings in villenage, the common form is always adhered to of a surrender by the old tenant to the lord, and a re-grant of the holding to the new tenant, to be held by him at the will of the lord in villenage at the usual services. Where the change of holding occurs on the death of a tenant, the common form recites that the holding has reverted to the lord, who re-grants it to the new tenant as before in villenage.

Further examination at once discloses a marked difference in kind between some classes of holdings in villenage and others.

Virgates and half-virgates.

In some cases the holding handed over is simply described by the one comprehensive word 'virgata' (the Latin equivalent for 'yard-land'), without any further description. The 'virgate' of A. B. is transferred to C. D. in one lump; i.e. the holding is an indivisible whole, evidently so well known as to need no description of its contents.

In other cases the holding is in the same way described as a 'half-virgate,' without any details being needful as to its contents.

But in the case of all other holdings the contents are described in detail half-acre by half-acre, each half-acre being identified by the names of the holders [p024] of the strips on either side of it. They vary in size from one half-acre to 8 or 10 or 12 half-acres, and in a few cases more. The greater number of them are, however, evidently the holdings of small cottier tenants. A few cases occur, but only a few, where a messuage is held without land.

What is a virgate or yard-land?

But the question of interest is what may be the nature of the holdings called virgates and half-virgates—these well-known bundles of land, which, as already said, need no description of their contents. Fortunately in one single case a virgate or yard-land—that of John Moldeson—loses its indivisible unity and is let out again by the lord to several persons in portions. These being new holdings, and no longer making up a virgate, it became needful to describe their contents on the rolls.20 Thus the details of which a virgate was made up are accidentally exposed to view.

Putting the broken pieces of it together, this virgate of John Moldeson is found to have consisted of a messuage in the village of Shipton, in the manor of Winslow, and the following half-acre strips of land scattered all over the open fields of the manor.

The virgate or yard-land of John Moldeson.

Where situated.	Between the Land of
12 acre in Clayforlong.	John Boveton and William Jonynges.
12 acre in Brereforlong.	Richard Lif and John Mayn.
12 acre at Anamanlond by the king's highway (juxta regiam viam).
12 acre at Lofthorn.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at le Wawes.	John Hikkes and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Michelpeysforlong.	Henry Warde and John Watekyns.
12 acre above le Snoute.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre in le Snouthale.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Livershulle.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Narowe-aldemed.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre in Shiptondene.	John Hikkes and John Howeprest.
12 acre in Waterforough.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
2 roods below Chircheheigh.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Fyveacres.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Sherdeforlong.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Thorlong.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre (of pasture) in Farnhamesden.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre (of pasture) in three parcels.
1 acre (of pasture) below Estattemore.
12 acre (of pasture) at Brodemore.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre (of meadow) at Risshemede.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
2 doles (of meadow) in Shrovedoles.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre below le Knolle.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Brodealdemade.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre above Brodelangelonde.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Merslade.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Langebenehullesdene.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Hoggestonforde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Clayforde.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Narwelanglonde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Wodewey.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre Benethenhystrete.	William Jonynges and Henry Boviton.
12 acre Benethenhystrete.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Langeslo.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Lowe.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at le Knolle.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Brodealdemede.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Shortslo.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Eldeleyen.	John Watekyns and John Janekyns.
12 acre above Langeblakgrove.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Blakeputtis.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre above Medeforlong.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at le Thorn.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Overlitellonde.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre above le Brodelitellonde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Overlitellonde.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre above Medeforlong.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at le Thorn.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Hoggestonforde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Eldeleyes.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Cokwell.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Brodefarnham.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Langefarnham.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above Farnhamshide.	Henry Boveton and Richard Atte Halle.
12 acre at Howeshamme.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Stonysticch.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Coppedemore.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Brerebuttes.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Wodeforlonge.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Porteweye.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Litebenhulle.	Henry Boveton and Matthew atte Lane.
12 acre at Michilblakegrove.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Litelblakegrove.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Brodereten.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Brodeliteldon.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Stoteford.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre at Brodelangelonde.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre above Litelbelesden.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.
12 acre in Anamaneslonde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Litelpeisaere.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
1 rood in le Trendel.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Merslade.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Merslade.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre at Brodelitellonde.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre below le Knolle.	John Watekyns and Henry Warde.
12 acre above le Brodealdemede.	John Watekyns and John Mayn.

Summary of the contents of a virgate or yard-land.

Thus the virgate or yard-land of John Moldeson was composed of a messuage and

 68 half-acre strips of arable land,

 3 rood strips of arable land,

 2 doles,

 1 acre of pasture,

 3 half-acres of pasture, and

 1 half-acre of meadow,

scattered all over the open fields in their various furlongs.

A Normal Virgate Or Yardland.

The normal holding of the villanus, consisting of a messuage and 30 scattered acres coloured red, by way of example on the Map of the open fields of Hitchen.

See Larger.

Go to: List of Illustrations

Rotation in the order of the strips.

But it may be asked, how can it be proved that the other virgates were like the one virgate of John [p027] Moldeson thus by chance described and exposed to view on the manor rolls? Is it right to assume that this virgate may be taken as a pattern of the rest? The answer is, that in the description of its 72 half-acre strips the 144 neighbouring strips are incidentally involved. And as 66 of its strips had on one side of them 66 other strips of another tenant, viz. John Watekyns, and on the other side 43 of the next strips belonged to Henry Warde, and 23 to John Mayn, and 8 of the strips only had other neighbours, it is evident that the virgate of John Moldeson was one of a system of similar virgates formed of scattered half-acre strips, arranged in a certain regular order of rotation, in which John Moldeson came 66 times next to John Watekyns, and two other neighbours followed him, one 43 and the other 23 times, in similar succession.

A virgate or yard-land is a bundle of 30 or 40 acres in scattered acre or half-acre strips.

Thus the Winslow virgates were intermixed, and each was a holding of a messuage in the village, and between 30 and 40 modern acres of land, not contiguous, but scattered in half-acre pieces all over the common fields. The half-virgate consisted in the same way of a messuage in the village with half as many strips scattered over the same fields. The intermixed ownership complained of in the Inclosure Acts, and surviving in the Hitchin maps, need no longer surprise us.

The normal virgate was of 30 acres.

We know now what a virgate or yard-land was. We shall find that its normal area was 30 scattered acres—10 acres in each of the three fields. Using again the map of the Hitchin fields, we may mark upon it the contents of a normal virgate by way of impressing upon the eye the nature of this peculiar holding. It must always be remembered that when [p028] the fields were divided into half-acres instead of acres the number of its scattered strips would be doubled.

Two-thirds of the land held in virgates and half-virgates.

It is not possible to ascertain from a mere record of the changes in the holdings precisely how many of these virgates and half-virgates there were in the manor of Winslow. But in the year of the Black Death it may be assumed that the mortality fell with something like equality upon all classes of tenants, 153 changes of holding from the death of previous holders being recorded in 1348–9. Out of these, 28 were holders of virgates and 14 of half-virgates. The virgates and half-virgates of these holders who died of the Black Death must have included more than 2,400 half-acre strips in the open fields; and adding up the contents of the other holdings of tenants who died that year, it would seem that about two-thirds of the whole area which changed hands in that memorable year were included in the virgates and half-virgates. It may be inferred, therefore, that about the same proportion of the whole area of the open fields must have been included in the virgates and half-virgates whose holders died or survived. Clearly, then, the mass of the land in the open fields was held in these two grades of holdings.21

They are held in villenage.

Thus much, then, may be learned from the Winslow manor rolls with respect to the virgates and half-virgates. Not only were they holdings each composed of a messuage and the scattered strips belonging to it in the open fields, not only did they form the [p029] two chief grades of holdings with equality in each grade, but also they were all alike held in villenage. They were not holdings of the lord's demesne land, but of the land in villenage. The holders, besides their virgates and half-virgates, often, it is true, held other land, part of the lord's demesne, as free tenants at an annual rent. But such free holdings were no part of their virgates. The virgates and half-virgates were held in villenage. Of these they were not free tenants, but villein tenants. So also the lesser cottage holdings were held in villenage. But the holders of virgates and half-virgates were the highest grades in the hierarchy of tenants in villenage. They not only held the greater part of the open fields in their bundles of scattered strips; the rolls also show that they almost exclusively served as jurors in the 'Halimot,' or Court of the Manor; though occasionally one or two other villein tenants with smaller holdings were associated with them.22

The villein holders, 'villani,' are 'adscripti glebæ.'

It is possible that just as villein tenants could hold in free tenure land in the lord's demesne, so free men might hold virgates in villenage and retain their personal freedom; but those at all events of the holders of virgates who were nativi, i.e. villeins by descent were adscripti glebæ. They held their holdings at the will of the lord, and were bound to perform the customary services. If they allowed their houses to [p030] get out of repair they were guilty of waste, and the jury were fined if they did not report the neglect.23

Yet the entries in the rolls prove that their holdings were hereditary, passing by the lord's re-grant from father to son by the rule of primogeniture, on payment of the customary heriot or relief.24

Widows had dower, and widowers were tenants by the curtesy, as in the case of freeholds. The holders in villenage, even 'nativi,' could make wills which were proved before the cellerarius of the abbey, and had done so time out of mind, while the wills of free tenants were proved at St. Albans.25

These things all look like a certain recognition of freedom within the restraints of the villenage. But if the 'nativi' married without the lord's consent they were fined. If they sold an ox without licence, again they were fined. If they left the manor without licence they were searched for, and if found arrested as fugitives and brought back.26 If their daughters lost their chastity27 the lord again had his fine. And [p031] in all these cases the whole jury were fined if they neglected to report the delinquent.

But their serfdom is breaking up.

Their services were no doubt limited and defined by custom, and so late as the reign of Edward III. mostly discharged by a money payment in lieu of the actual service, but they rested nominally on the will of the lord; and sometimes to test their obedience the relaxed rein was tightened, and trivial orders were issued, such as that they should go off to the woods and pick nuts for the lord.28 In case of dispute a court was held under the great ash tree at St. Albans, and the decision of this superior manorial court at head-quarters settled the question.29 This villenage of the Winslow tenants was, no doubt, in the fourteenth century mild in its character; the silent working of economic laws was breaking it up; but it was villenage still. It was serfdom, but it was serfdom in the last stages of its relaxation and decay.

Already, any harking back by the landlord upon older and stricter rules—any return, for instance, to the actual services instead of the money payments in lieu of them—produced resentment and insubordination amongst the villein tenants. Murmurs were already heard in the courts, and symptoms appear on the rolls in the year following the Black Death which clearly indicate the presence of smouldering embers very likely soon to burst into flame.30 The rebellion under Wat Tyler was, in fact, not far ahead. But in this inquiry we are looking backwards into earlier times, in order to learn what English serfdom was when fully in force, rather than in the days when [p032] it was breaking up. In the meantime the practical knowledge gained from the Winslow manor rolls, how a community in serfdom fitted as it were into the open field system as into an outer shell, and still more the knowledge of what the virgate and half-virgate in villenage really were, drawn from actual examples, may prove a useful key in unlocking still further the riddle of earlier serfdom.