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ABOUT WATER—HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS—LAW OF ARCHIMEDES—THE BRAMAH PRESS—THE SYPHON.

At present we will pass from Air to Water, from Pneumatics to Hydrostatics and Hydraulics. We must remember that Hydrostatics and Hydraulics are very different. The former treats of the weight and pressure of liquids when they are at rest, the latter treats of them in motion. We will now speak of the properties of Liquids, of which Water may be taken as the most familiar example.

We have already seen that Matter exists in the form of Solids, Liquids, and Gases, and of course Water is one form of Matter. It occupies a certain space, is slightly compressible; it possesses weight, and exercises force when in motion. It is a fluid, but also a liquid. There are fluids not liquid, such as air or steam, to take equally familiar examples. These are elastic fluids and compressible, while water is inelastic, and termed incompressible.

The chemical composition of water will be considered hereafter, but at present we may state that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, and proportions of eight of the former to one of the latter by weight; in volume the hydrogen is as two to one.

From these facts, as regards water, we learn that volume and weight are very different things—that equal volumes of various things may have different weights, and that volume (or bulk) by no means indicates weight Equal volumes of feathers and sand will weigh very differently.

[The old “catch” question of the “difference in weight between a pound of lead and a pound of feathers” here comes to the mind. The answer generally given is that “feathers make the heavier ‘pound’ because they are weighed by avoirdupois, and lead by troy weight.” This is an error. They are both weighed in the same way, and pound for pound are the same weight, though different in volume.]

Fluids in equilibrium have all their particles at the same distance from the centre of the earth, and although within small distances liquids appear perfectly level (in a direct line), they must, as the sea does, conform to the shape of the earth, though in small levels the space is too limited to admit of any deviation from the plane at right angle to the direction of gravity.

Liquids always fall to a perfectly level surface, and water will seek to find its original level, whether it be in one side of a bent tube, in a watering pot and its spout, or as a fountain. The surface of the water will be on the same level in the arms of a bent tube, and the fountain will rise to a height corresponding with the elevation of the parent spring whence it issues. The waterworks companies first pump the water to a high reservoir, and then it rises equally high in our high-level cisterns.

As an example of the force of water, a pretty little experiment may be easily tried, and, as many of our readers have seen in a shop in the Strand in London, it always is attractive. A good-sized glass shade should be procured and placed over a water tap and basin, as per the illustration herewith. Within the glass put a number of balls of cork or other light material. Let a stop-cock, with a small aperture, be fixed upon the tube leading into the glass. Another tube to carry away the water should, of course, be provided, but it may be used over again. When the tap is properly fixed, if the pressure of the water be sufficient, it will rush out with some force, and catching the balls as they fall to the bottom of the glass shade bear them up as a juggler would throw oranges from hand to hand. If coloured balls be used the effect may be enhanced, and much variety imparted to the experiment, which is very easy to make.

Fig. 57.—Water jet and balls.

Water exercises an enormous pressure, but the pressure does not depend upon the amount of water in the vessel. It depends upon the vessel’s height, and the dimensions of the base. This has been proved by filling vessels whose bases and heights are equal, but whose shapes are different, each holding a different quantity of water. The pressure at the bottom of each vessel is the same, and depends upon the depth of the water. If we subject a portion of the liquid surface to certain force, this pressure will be dispersed equally in all directions, and from an acquaintance with this fact the Hydraulic Press was brought into notice. If a vessel with a horizontal bottom be filled with water to a depth of one foot, every square foot will sustain a pressure of 62·37 lbs., and each square inch of 0·433 lbs.

Figs. 58, 59, 60, 61.—Pressure of Water.

We will now explain the principle of this Water Press. In the small diagram, the letters A B represent the bottom of a cylinder which has a piston fitted in it (P). Into the opposite side a pipe is let in, which leads from a force-pump D, which is fitted with a valve E, opening upwards. When the piston in D is pulled up water enters through the valve; when the piston is forced down the valve shuts, and the water rushes into the chamber A B. The pressure pushes up the large piston with a force multiplied as many times as the area of the small piston is contained in the large one. So if the large one be ten times as great as the small one, and the latter be forced down with a 10 lb. pressure, the pressure on the large one will be 100 lbs., and so on.

Fig. 62.—Water Press.

The accompanying illustration shows the form of the Hydraulic or Bramah Press. A B C D is a strong frame, F the force-pump worked by means of a lever fixed at G, and H is the counterprise. E is the stop-cock to admit the water (fig. 63).

Fig. 63.—Bramah Press.

The principles of hydrostatics will be easily explained. The Lectures of M. Aimé Schuster, Professor and Librarian at Metz, have taught us in a very simple manner the principle of Archimedes, in which it is laid down that “a body immersed in a liquid loses a portion of its weight equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.” We take a body of as irregular form as we please; a stone, for example. A thread is attached to the stone, and it is then placed in a glass of water full up to the brim. The water overflows; a volume of the liquid equal to that of the stone runs over. The glass thus partially emptied is then dried, and placed on the scale of a balance, beneath which we suspend the stone; equilibrium is established by placing some pieces of lead in the other scale. We then take a vase full of water, into which we plunge the stone suspended from the scale, supporting the vase by means of bricks. The equilibrium is now broken; to re-establish it, it is necessary to fill up with water the glass placed on the scale; that is to say, we put back in the glass the weight of a volume of water precisely equal to that of the stone.

Fig. 64.—Demonstration of the upward pressure of liquids.

If it is desired to investigate the principles relating to connected vessels, springs of water, artesian wells, etc., two funnels, connected by means of an india-rubber tube of certain length, will serve for the demonstration; and by placing the first funnel at a higher level, and pouring in water abundantly, we shall see that it overflows from the second.

A disc of cardboard and a lamp-glass will be all that is required to show the upward pressure of liquids. I apply to the opening of the lamp-glass a round piece of cardboard, which I hold in place by means of a string; the tube thus closed I plunge into a vessel filled with water. The piece of cardboard is held by the pressure of the water upwards. To separate it from the opening it suffices to pour some water into the tube up to the level of the water outside (fig. 64). The outer pressure exercised on the disc, as well as the pressure beneath, is now equal to the weight of a body of water having for its base the surface of the opening of the tube, its depth being the distance from the cardboard to the level of the water.

Syringes, pumps, etc., are the effects of atmospheric pressure. Balloons rise in the air by means of the pressure of gas; a balloon being a body plunged in gas, is consequently submitted to the same laws as a body plunged in water.

Boats float because of the pressure of liquid, and water spurts from a fountain for the same reason. I recollect having read a very useful application of the principles of fluid pressure.

Fig 65.—Experiment on the convexity of a meniscus.

A horse was laden with two tubs for carrying a supply of water, and in the bottom of the tubs a valve was fixed. When the horse entered the stream the tubs were partly immersed; the water then exercised its upward pressure, the valve opened, and the tubs slowly filled. When they were nearly full the horse turned round and came out of the water; the pressure had ceased.

Thus the action of the water first opened the valve, and then closed it.

The particular phenomena observable in the water level in narrow spaces, as of a fine glass tube, or the level of two adjoining waves, capillary phenomena, etc., do not need any special appliance for demonstration, and it is the same with the convexity or concavity of meniscuses.

Fig. 65 represents a pretty experiment in connection with these phenomena. I take a glass, which I fill up to the brim, taking care that the meniscus be concave, and near it I place a pile of pennies. I then ask my young friends how many pennies can be thrown into the glass without the water overflowing. Everyone who is not familiar with the experiment will answer that it will only be possible to put in one or two, whereas it is possible to put in a considerable number, even ten or twelve. As the pennies are carefully and slowly dropped in, the surface of the liquid will be seen to become more and more convex, and one is surprised to what an extent this convexity increases before the water overflows.

Fig. 66.—The Syphon.

The common syphon may be mentioned here. It consists of a bent tube with limbs of unequal length. We give an illustration of the syphon (fig. 66). The shorter leg being put into the mixture, the air is exhausted from the tube at o, the aperture at g being closed with the finger. When the finger is removed the liquid will run out. If the water were equally high in both legs the pressure of the atmosphere would hold the fluid in equilibrium, but one leg being longer, the column of water in it preponderates, and as it falls, the pressure on the water in the vessel keeps up the supply.

Apropos of the syphon, we may mention a very simple application of the principle. Cut off a strip of cloth, and arrange it so that one end shall remain in a glass of water while the other hangs down, as in the illustration. In a short time the water from the upper glass will have passed through the cloth-fibres to the lower one (fig. 67).

This attribute of porous substances is called capillarity, and shows itself by capillary attraction in very fine pores or tubes. The same phenomenon is exhibited in blotting paper, sugar, wood, sand, and lamp-wicks, all of which give familiar instances of capillarity. The cook makes use of this property by using thin paper to absorb grease from the surface of soups.

Capillarity (referred to on page 25) is the term used to define capillary force, and is derived from the word capillus, a hair; and so very small bore tubes are called capillary tubes. We know that when we plunge a glass tube into water the liquid will rise up in it, and the narrower the tube the higher the water will go; moreover, the water inside will be higher than at the outside. This is in accordance with a well-known law of adhesion, which induces concave or convex surfaces9 in the liquids in the tubes, according as the tube is wetted with the liquid or not. For instance, water, as we have said, will be higher in the tube, and concave in form; but mercury will be depressed below the outside level, and convex, because mercury will not adhere to glass. When the force of cohesion to the sides of the tube is more than twice as great as the adhesion of the particles of the liquid, it will rise up the sides, and if the forces be reversed, the rounded appearance will follow. This accounts for the convex appearance, or “meniscus,” in the column of mercury in a barometer.

Amongst the complicated experiments to demonstrate molecular attraction, the following is very simple and very pretty:—Take two small balls of cork, and having placed them in a basin half-filled with water, let them come close to each other. When they have approached within a certain distance they will rush together. If you fix one of them on the blade of your penknife, it will attract the other as a magnet, so that you can lead it round the basin (fig. 68). But if the balls of cork are covered with grease they will repel each other, which fact is accounted for by the form of the menisques, which are convex or concave, according as they are moistened, or preserved from action of the water by the grease.

Fig. 67.—An improvised syphon.

This attribute is of great use in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The rising of the sap is one instance of the latter.

Experience in hydrostatics can be easily applied to amusing little experiments. For instance, as regards the syphon, we may make an image of Tantalus as per illustration (fig. 69). A wooden figure may be cut in a stooping posture, and placed in the centre of a wide vase, as if about to drink. If water be poured slowly into the vase it will never rise to the mouth of the figure, and the unhappy Tantalus will remain in expectancy. This result is obtained by the aid of a syphon hidden in the figure, the shorter limb of which is in the chest. The longer limb descends through a hole in the table, and carries off the water. These vases are called vases of Tantalus.

The principle of the syphon may also be adapted to our domestic filters. Charcoal, as we know, makes an excellent filter, and if we have a block of charcoal in one of those filters—now so common—we can fix a tube into it, and clear any water we may require. It sometimes (in the country) happens that drinking-water may become turgid, and in such a case the syphon filter will be found useful.

Fig. 68.—Molecular attraction.

The old “deception” jugs have often puzzled people. We give an illustration of one, and also a sketch of the “deceptive” portion (figs. 70 and 71). This deception is very well managed, and will create much amusement if a jug can be procured; they were fashionable in the eighteenth century, and previously. A cursory inspection of these curious utensils will lead one to vote them utterly useless. They are, however, very quaint, and if not exactly useful are ornamental. They are so constructed, that if an inexperienced person wish to pour out the wine or water contained in them, the liquid will run out through the holes cut in the jug.

To use them with safety it is necessary to put the spout A in one’s mouth, and close the opening B with the finger, and then by drawing in the breath, cause the water to mount to the lips by the tube which runs around the jug. The specimens herein delineated have been copied from some now existent in the museum of the Sèvres china manufactory.

The Buoyancy of Water is a very interesting subject, and a great deal may be written respecting it. The swimmer will tell us that it is easier to float in salt water than in fresh. He knows by experience how difficult it is to sink in the sea; and yet hundreds of people are drowned in the water, which, if they permitted it to exercise its power of buoyancy, would help to save life.

Fig. 69.—Vase of Tantalus.

The sea-water holds a considerable quantity of salt in solution, and this adds to its resistance, or floating power. It is heavier than fresh water, and the Dead Sea is so salt that a man cannot possibly sink in it. This means that the man’s body, bulk for bulk, is much lighter than the water of the Dead Sea. A man will sink in fresh, or ordinary salt water if the air in his lungs be exhausted, because without the air he is much heavier than water, bulk for bulk. So if anything is weighed in water, it apparently loses in weight exactly equal to its own bulk of water.

Water is the means by which the Specific Gravity of liquids or solids is found, and by it we can determine the relative densities of matter in proportion. Air is the standard for gases and vapours. Let us examine this, and see what is meant by Specific Gravity.

We have already mentioned the difference existing between two equal volumes of different substances, and their weight, which proves that they may contain a different number of atoms in the same space. We also know, from the principle of Archimedes, that if a body be immersed in a fluid, a portion of its weight will be sustained by the fluid equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Fig. 70.—Deception jugs of old pattern.

[This theorem is easily proved by filling a bucket with water, and moving it about in water, when it will be easy to lift; and likewise the human body may be easily sustained in water by a finger under the chin.]

Fig. 71.—Section of jug.

The manner in which Archimedes discovered the displacement of liquids is well known, but is always interesting. King Hiero, of Syracuse, ordered a crown of gold to be made, and when it had been completed and delivered to His Majesty, he had his doubts about the honesty of the goldsmith, and called to Archimedes to tell him whether or not the crown was of gold, pure and simple. Archimedes was puzzled, and went home deep in thought. Still considering the problem he went to the bath, and in his abstraction filled it to the brim. Stepping in he spilt a considerable quantity of water, and at once the idea struck him that any body put into water would displace its own weight of the liquid. He did not wait to dress, but ran half-naked to the palace, crying out, “Eureka, Eureka! I have found it, I have found it! “What had he found?—He had solved the problem.

He got a lump of gold the same weight as the crown, and immersed it in water. He found it weighed nineteen times as much as its own bulk of water. But when he weighed the kings crown he found it displaced more water than the pure gold had done, and consequently it had been adulterated by a lighter metal. He assumed that the alloy was silver, and by immersing lumps of silver and gold of equal weight with the crown, and weighing the water that overflowed from each dip, he was able to tell the king how far he had been cheated by the goldsmith.

Fig. 72.—Weighing metal in water.

It is by this method now that we can ascertain the specific gravity of bodies. One cubic inch of water weighs about half an ounce (or to be exact, 252½ grains). Take a piece of lead and weigh it in air; it weighs, say, eleven ounces. Then weigh it in a vase of water, and it will be only ten ounces in weight. So lead is eleven times heavier than water, or eleven ounces of lead occupy the same space as one ounce of water.

Fig. 73.—Hydrometer.

[The heavier a fluid is, or the greater its density, the greater will be the weight it will support. Therefore we can ascertain the purity or otherwise of certain liquids by using hydrometers, etc., which will float higher or lower in different liquids, and being gauged at the standard of purity, we can ascertain (for instance) how much water is in the milk when supplied from the dairy.]

But to return to Specific Gravity, which means the “Comparative density of any substance relatively to water,” or as Professor Huxley says, “The weight of a volume of any liquid or solid in proportion to the weight of the same volume of water, at a known temperature and pressure.”

Water, therefore, is taken as the unit; so anything whose equal volume under the same circumstances is twice as heavy as the water, is declared to have its specific gravity 2; if three-and-a-half times it is 3·5, and so on. We append a few examples; so we see that things which possess a higher specific gravity than water sink, which comes to the same thing as saying they are heavier than water, and vice versâ.

To find the specific gravity of any solid body proceed as above, in the experiment of the lead. By weighing the substance in and out of water we find the weight of the water displaced; that is, the first weight less the second. Divide the weight in air by the remainder, and we shall find the specific gravity of the substance.

Fig. 74.—Over-shot wheel of mill.

The following is a table of specific gravities of some very different substances, taking water as the unit.

Substance.	Specific Gravity.	Substance.	Specific Gravity.	Substance.	Specific Gravity.
Platinum	21·5	Iron	7·79	Water	1·000
Gold	19·5	Tin	7·29	Sea Water	1·026
Mercury	13·59	Granite	2·62	Rain Water	1·001
Lead	11·45	Oak Wood	0·77	Ice	·916
Silver	10·50	Cork	0·24	Ether	0·723
Copper	8·96	Milk	1·032	Alcohol	0·793

But we have by no means exhausted the uses of water. Hydrodynamics, which is the alternative term for hydraulics, includes the consideration of many forms of water-wheels, most of which, as mill-wheels, are under-shot, or over-shot accordingly as the water passes horizontally over the floats, or acts beneath them. These wheels are used in relation to the fall of water. If there is plenty of water and a slight fall, the under-shot wheel is used. If there is a good fall less water will suffice, as the weight and momentum of the falling liquid upon the paddles will turn the wheel. Here is the Persian water-wheel, used for irrigation (fig. 75). The Archimedian Screw, called after its inventor, was one of the earliest modes of raising water. It consists of a cylinder somewhat inclined, and a tube bent like a screw within it. By turning the handle of the screw the water is drawn up and flows out from the top.

Fig. 75.—Irrigation wheel in Egypt.

The Water Ram is a machine used for raising water to a great height by means of the momentum of falling water.

The Hydraulic Lift is familiar to us all, as it acts in our hotels, and we need only mention these appliances here; full descriptions will be found in Cyclopædias.

We have by no means exhausted the subject of Water in this chapter. Far from it. But when we come to Chemistry and Physical Geography we shall have more to tell, and our remarks as to the application of science to Domestic Economy, in accordance with our plan, will also lead us up to some of the uses of water. So for the present we will take our leave of water in a liquid form, and meet it again under the application of Heat, which subject will take us to Ice and Steam—two very different conditions of water.