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Foreword

Preface

About the Coauthors

Acknowledgments

Part I: A Foundation for Making Ethical Decisions

1 Why Ethics Matters in Journalism

Our society needs news professionals who do the right thing

 Contemporary journalists are keenly aware of the ethics of the profession, dealing frequently with ethics questions.

 In a profession that cannot be regulated because of the First Amendment, responsible journalists adhere voluntarily to high standards of conduct.

 The goal of this book and course is to teach you how to make ethically sound decisions.

 Discussing case studies in class is crucial to learning the decision-making process.

 The digital era, which has radically changed the way the news is gathered and delivered, has provoked controversy over whether ethics should radically change as well.

 Confronted with a daily deluge of information, the public depends on ethical journalists for news that can be trusted.

Point of View: A “Tribal Ferocity” Enforces the Code (John Carroll)

2 Ethics: The Bedrock of a Society

An introduction to terms and concepts in an applied-ethics course

 Ethics is about discerning between right and wrong and then doing what is right.

 Ancient societies developed systems of ethics that still influence human behavior.

 Though often related, ethics and law differ; law prescribes minimum standards of conduct, and ethics prescribes exemplary conduct.

 A member of a society absorbs its ethical precepts through a process of socialization.

 Our value system – based on the things we prize most – influences how we make moral choices.

 An ethical dilemma demands such a moral choice: a person may have to violate one ethical principle to fulfill another.

3 The News Media’s Role in Society

The profession has matured and accepted social responsibility

 Journalists generally agree that their fundamental ethical principles are to seek truth, serve the public, and maintain independence from the people they report on.

 Journalism, like other professions and institutions, owes society a moral duty called social responsibility.

 In the 1940s, the Hutchins Commission defined journalism’s social responsibility: to provide reliable information for the community.

 An ethical awakening occurred in journalism during the decade beginning in the mid-1970s.

 During this period of reform, many news organizations codified their principles, first addressing conflicts of interest and then refining news-coverage practices.

 Today’s journalism reflects decades of rising professionalism, but the transition to the digital era presents new challenges.

Point of View: The Essential Pursuit of Truth (Martin Baron)

Point of View: Decision-Making in the Digital Age (James M. Naughton)

4 For Journalists, a Clash of Moral Duties

Responsibilities as professionals and as human beings can conflict

 In the abstract, journalists should avoid becoming involved with the events and the people they cover.

 However, certain situations require journalists to decide whether they should step out of their observer role and become participants.

 In those situations, guidelines can help journalists reach sound decisions about whether to intervene.

Point of View: Journalists Are Humans, Too (Halle Stockton)

Case Study: The Journalist as a Witness to Suffering

Case Study: Protester Is Beaten; Reporter Steps In

5 The Public and the Media: Love and Hate

The goal for the journalist should be respect, not popularity

 Even as the news media mature and accept social responsibility, the public is increasingly hostile, and that is documented in surveys.

 As a journalist, you should be aware of this hostility and the likely reasons for it.

 You should treat the audience with respect and take complaints seriously; stripping away the rancor, you might find useful lessons.

 The public’s hostility has to be put in perspective; it may not be as bad as it seems.

Point of View: Journalism, Seen From the Other Side (Jane Shoemaker)

Case Study: A Journalist’s Trial by Social Media

6 How the “Trump Effect” Challenged Journalism

The news media had never dealt with a president like No. 45

 As a candidate and president (2015 - 2021), Donald Trump vigorously tested journalism’s habits, tools, and tenets.

 Modifying their reporting practices, journalists adapted to Trump much as earlier generations had adapted to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy. But the transition was not a smooth one.

 To deal with a multitude of false statements, news organizations created fact-checking units and debated whether to use the word lie.

 Coverage of Trump and his administration ranged from hard-hitting investigations to snarky commentary that tended to confirm critics allegations of bias.

Point of View: Impartial Journalism’s Enduring Value (Thomas Kent)

7 Applying Four Classic Theories of Ethics

Ancient philosophy can be a factor in the decision-making process

 The strengths and weaknesses of four classic ethical theories in the context of editor’s decisions to publish government secrets.

 Rule-based thinking - doing the right thing, even if there are consequences.

 Ends-based thinking - choosing to do what brings the most good to the most people.

 The Golden Rule - treating other people the way you would want to be treated.

 Aristotle’s Golden Mean - finding a moderate solution when the extremes won’t work.

 The practice of journalism typically blends rule-based thinking and ends- based thinking.

8 Using a Code of Ethics as a Decision Tool

Written professional standards can be a valuable guide

 Ethics codes in journalism trace their origins to the early twentieth century, as some editors put word-of-mouth standards into writing.

 Codes adopted by professional associations of journalists are voluntary; codes adopted by news outlets for the direction of their staffs are enforceable.

 Codes can be useful as a part of the decision process, not as a substitute for that process.

 The Society of Professional Journalist’s 2014 revision of its code of ethics is a model for the profession. Its four guiding principles are: seek truth and report it, minimize harm, act independently, and be accountable and transparent.

9 Making Moral Decisions You Can Defend

How to apply critical thinking and a decision template

 A careful decision-making process draws on the practical skills of journalism: gathering facts, analyzing them, and making judgments.

 Critical thinking - thoughtful analysis - is an essential component of the decision process.

 A step-by-step template can guide you to a better decision.

 You must test your decision to see if it can be defended.

 In this course, approach the case studies as a laboratory exercise in decision-making.

Point of View: Avoid These Rationalizations (Michael Josephson)

Case Study: Deciding Whether to Identify a CIA Agent

Part II: Putting Journalism Ethics to Work

10 Getting the Facts Right and Being Fair

SPJ’s guiding principle of seeking truth and reporting it

 Accuracy and fairness are journalism’s fundamental ethical values.

 The digital era, with its emphasis on speed, entices reporters to take shortcuts and, thus, to risk mistakes.

 Journalists have to be alert for hoaxes, especially on the web.

 Problematic trends in the newsroom: less specialization, less editing.

Point of View: Declaring What You Wont Report (Craig Silverman)

Case Study: A Story of Rape at Mr. Jefferson’s University

Case Study: A Double Disaster at the Sago Mine

Case Study: Richard Jewell: He Really Was a Hero

Case Study: The Football Star’s Fictitious Girlfriend

11 Showing Empathy for People in the News

SPJ’s guiding principle of minimizing harm

 Recognizing that the truth can hurt, journalists should weigh the information they are reporting against the harm it can be expected to cause. Sometimes that calculation might lead to a decision not to publish a detail of marginal relevance or possibly an entire story or photograph.

 Requests from the public to “unpublish” archival content create an ethical dilemma: a desire to protect the historical record versus consideration of the people hurt by that record, especially when it is flawed.

 Reporters should take particular care when interviewing children and survivors of a tragedy, or when reporting on suicides.

 Journalists should be aware that their presence can be viewed as intrusive.

Case Study: The Death of a Boy

Point of View: Reporting a Fact, Causing Harm (William F. Woo)

12 Avoiding Conflicts: Appearances Count

SPJ’s guiding principle of acting independently

 In an actual conflict of interest, journalists allow self‐interest, or a loyalty to any other person or organization, to take precedence over their duty to the audience.

 Because a conflict of interest gives the audience reason to doubt the journalist’s loyalty, it undermines credibility.

 An appearance of a conflict of interest can damage credibility even if the journalist’s reporting is honest.

 By following reasonable guidelines, you can avoid most conflicts, actual or apparent.

 Identifying situations that commonly lead to conflicts.

Case Study: A Reporter’s Son Joins a Foreign Army

Case Study: A Journalist’s Gifts to the Clinton Foundation

Case Study: The Columnist’s Other Job

Case Study: Carrying a Torch, Stirring Debate

13 Lifting the Curtain on How Journalism Is Done

SPJ’s guiding principle of being accountable and transparent

 News organizations should correct their mistakes promptly, prominently, and clearly.

 News organizations should have a system to invite, receive, and act on inquiries and complaints about news coverage.

 News organizations should be willing to explain and discuss how they cover the news.

 The audience can be a partner in reporting the news, but journalists have a duty to verify all user-generated content.

 There are limits to journalistic transparency, including the question of whether reporter’s personal opinions should be revealed.

Point of View: A Digital Dialogue With Readers (Mark Bowden)

Case Study: Roughed Up at Recess

14 Navigating Social Medias Uneven Terrain

Connecting with the audience while maintaining impartiality

 Using social media helps journalists report their stories and promote them. However, journalist’s comments about people and events in the news can damage their credibility and that of their news organizations.

 Social media policies are a common source of tension in newsrooms, and enforcement of those policies has led to staff protests.

Point of View: Race, Gender, Social Media, and Power (Ingrid Sturgis)

Point of View: A Journalist’s Duty (Bob Steele)

Case Study: A Reporter’s Tweet Hits a Sour Note

15 Covering a Diverse, Multicultural Society

An ethical duty to be inclusive in news coverage and in the newsroom

 Covering society’s diversity is an ethical responsibility, because news organizations have a duty to cover the entire community.

 Careful, sensitive reporting is required to analyze the complex issues of racial and ethnic conflicts.

 Journalists face challenges in their efforts to provide knowledgeable coverage of cultures other than their own.

 Reporters who cover new immigrants are confronting ethics issues such as protecting the identity of sources who are not documented.

 Point of View: Gaining Respect by Showing Respect (Joann Byrd)

16 Dealing With Sources of Information

The fine line between getting close and too close

 Ethics issues arise in reporter’s efforts to cultivate sources while maintaining independence from those sources.

 If a journalist agrees to protect a source who provides information on condition of anonymity, honoring that agreement is a solemn ethical duty.

 Journalists must avoid placing their sources in any kind of jeopardy.

 Beat reporting requires reporters to balance their relationships with newsmakers whom they depend on for information but also may have to report on critically.

 Showing copy to sources and other situations in which ethics issues arise in source relationships.

Point of View: Sometimes, Different Rules Apply (Jeffrey Fleishman)

Case Study: The Strange Intercept at “The Intercept”

17 Making News Decisions About Privacy

The public may need to know what individuals want hidden

 Journalists often must decide between the publics legitimate need to have certain information and the desire for privacy by the individuals involved.

 Although there are certain legal restraints on publicizing private information, most decisions are made on the basis of ethics rather than law.

 A three-step template, weighing the value of the information to the public against the degree of harm to the subject, can aid decision-making in privacy cases.

 Reporting situations in which privacy is central to decision-making.

Case Study: Tracing the Source of Web Comments

Case Study: Identifying a 13-Year-Old Rape Victim

18 Making Decisions About Offensive Content

The conflict between reflecting reality and respecting the audience

 Journalists often have to decide whether to publish or broadcast content that could offend a significant element of the audience.

 Offensive content falls into three categories: perceived insensitivity, offensive words, and offensive images.

 A two-step process can help you make decisions, weighing the content’s news value against how offensive it is.

 Although the internet empowers the audience to be heard, news organizations are struggling to find ways to curb incivility, and some are discontinuing online comments.

Case Study: A Vulgar List in the News

Case Study: A Killer Records a Video of His Murders

19 Deception: A Risky, Controversial Tool

When values collide: Lying while seeking the truth

 To decide whether to use a deceptive reporting practice, you first must acknowledge the deceit and not rationalize it.

 Before engaging in undercover reporting - pretending to be someone else you must meet exacting standards.

 There are other situations, short of undercover, in which journalists could deceive or could be perceived as deceiving.

 There is a consensus in the profession that a journalist should never deceive the audience or the journalists colleagues.

Point of View: The Truth About Deception (Brooke Kroeger)

Case Study: Rumsfeld’s Q&A With the Troops

Case Study: Spying on the Mayor in a Chat Room

20 Ethics Issues in Visual and Audio Journalism

Seeking truth with the camera or microphone while minimizing harm

 The public, aware how easy digital manipulation can be, must be able to trust the truthfulness of the news media’s photography and audio reports.

 News organizations have adopted standards to ensure the integrity of their photography and audio reports.

 The success of podcasts has created a new opportunity for audio journalism where ethics standards are still being formulated.

 Recognizing that some news photography can offend the audience, journalists weigh its news value against the likely offense.

 A number of news organizations are reducing their use of police arrest portraits because of fairness concerns.

 The use of aerial drones for news photography is increasing, and ethics guidelines are being put in place to protect privacy and safety.

Case Study: The Falling Man, World Trade Center, 2001

Case Study: Photographing a Man Pushed to His Death

21 Stolen Words and Invented Facts

Dishonesty can kill a career in journalism

 Plagiarism and fabrication are morally wrong. Plagiarism is stealing the creative work of another. Fabrication is making things up and presenting them as fact.

 The offenses of plagiarism and fabrication destroy journalism’s credibility and cost offenders their jobs and their careers.

 Committing illegal acts is unacceptable in the pursuit of news.

 Following sound work practices can help you avoid any hint of impropriety.

 Newsroom leaders have a duty to establish clear rules about journalistic misconduct and to enforce them.

22 The Business of Producing Journalism

Seeking financial stability in a turbulent era of transition

 Technological and economic transition has caused tensions in today’s news media.

 More people are getting their news digitally, but online sites are struggling to find stable sources of revenue.

 Although advertisers have historically paid for news coverage, consumers are now being asked to pay for digital subscriptions.

 Native advertising has found a home on news websites, where stringent rules are needed to protect integrity of news content.

 The business and news executives of media companies frequently have a strained relationship, mainly because their cultures are so different.

Case Study: Sharing Ad Profits, Creating a Crisis

Thoughts to Take With You

Glossary

Index