Читать книгу Japanese Art of Miniature Trees and Landscapes - Giovanna M. Halford - Страница 10

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PROPAGATION

BONSAI ARE ORDINARY TREES which, whether naturally or artificially dwarfed, have been trained in pots to grow into naturally beautiful shapes. It is important to bear this in mind, for the chief beauty of the bonsai is its form, and even when that form is fantastic it still must not be grotesque. Anyone studying the photographs in this book will understand this. Even the strange "cascade" trees, which grow down over the edge of the pot instead of upwards, should look like trees clinging to a ledge of rock above a precipice; and the type known as the "literati's tree"-so called from its resemblance to the trees seen in paintings by the scholar-artists of the Southern school of Chinese art-should not be distorted more than nature will at times distort. Above all, the bonsai should never be trained into a shape that does not naturally become its species; it should remain a forest tree, seen through the wrong end of a telescope. This training is the antithesis of topiary work, which at one time was almost as great a passion in England as bonsai are in Japan. Bonsai art aims at creating artificially perfect trees, while topiary art aims at amazing by the ingenuity with which trees can be made to look like anything but themselves. Yet there is a similarity between the two, for without constant care the products of neither would reach and retain perfection.

Because a bonsai is a forest tree it takes as long to come to maturity as it would if it were growing in a wood. It has the same span of life, except that, since it is cared for and protected, it may well outlive an ordinary tree, sometimes achieving a very great age indeed. Evergreens such as pines, cryptomeria, or cypresses reach maturity more slowly than most deciduous trees, but also live longer. On the whole, fruit trees and flowering trees mature fastest, but do not as a rule achieve a very great age, although there are cherry trees and wisteria which are known to be two or three hundred years old. As a general rule, a tree should be at least thirty years old to have reached maturity and at least fifty to have put on its full beauty, although not necessarily all these years as a bonsai. The tree should be judged as a whole. As pointed out in more detail in Chapter 8, the healthy color of the leaves, the pattern of trunk and branches, the spread of the roots, and the moss growing round them are all important.

The authors have written from the point of view of bonsai cultivation in Japan because it is there they have gained their experience. The trees here described are the Japanese varieties and the climatic conditions are those of Japan. This does not mean, of course, that other trees are not equally suitable. Any tree that flourishes is a potential bonsai, and many different types have been grown successfully in America and Europe. The great thing to remember is that to achieve satisfactory results it is preferable to choose varieties with small leaves and, particularly, small fruits and flowers. The trunk and branches can be dwarfed by pruning and even the leaves will become much smaller with the years of restriction as a bonsai, but fruit and flowers will always remain proportionate to their species. Thus a dwarf chestnut would have awkwardly large burs and its leaves would tend to be as long as its branches, and the tiny-leafed Japanese maple is more suitable than the larger Canadian variety. When making a bonsai by layering it is often possible to find a natural sport, a branch with dwarfed leaves which will make an especially fine tree.

Japan has a fairly average temperate climate. It is similar to that of large parts of America and most of Europe. It is damper than Oklahoma or Italy; hotter in summer than Colorado or England; colder in winter than Florida or Spain; but these are minor differences for which adjustments can be made. Bonsai should survive in any country with normal seasons. In the tropics, where the temperature and humidity hardly vary throughout the year, they have never so far been kept alive for more than six months, and the same would probably be true of subarctic countries. It is, however, possible that a bonsai of an indigenous tree, such as the mangosteen, might be reared successfully in Malaya and a local variety of pine or fir in Northern Canada or Sweden.

We have tried in this book to explain how the Japanese cultivate, care for, and enjoy their bonsai. The Japanese are an etiquette-loving people; they like to tabulate their experience and deduce rules from it. This can be seen in the elaborate rules which govern the art of flower arrangement, the tea ceremony, and indeed good manners in everyday life. There are also rules and etiquette where bonsai are concerned. We do not mean the basic principles for the cultivation of a healthy tree, but the etiquette which decides the form most suited to the species of tree, the choice of pot, the presentation, and even the manner in which the bonsai should be appreciated. We have tried to give the basic rules of Japanese taste underlying this etiquette, not because we think Western people must slavishly imitate the Japanese, but because these rules are interesting in themselves and will perhaps help others to realize the value set in Japan upon the bonsai. The reader will, we hope, understand why things are done and arranged in a certain way and by studying the pictures see the end result of the application of these principles. With this knowledge behind him he can create his own practical experience and adapt the rules evolved in Japan to his personal taste.

Japanese bonsai naturally resemble trees in Japan - those fantastic, wind-twisted trees that make a glorious pattern in paintings and prints but, until seen actually growing, seem like the figment of an artist's imagination. The trees of every country have their own peculiar beauty. A dwarf olive tree could be equally symbolic of Mediterranean lands, a little group of firs at the top of a slope of rocks and dwarf heather could recall moorland all over the world, and the satin trunk of the silver birch would lend beauty to a Scots or Canadian bonsai.

Bonsai may be grown in five different ways: they may be found already matured in places where natural conditions have stunted them; they may be grown from seed; or they may be made from cuttings, from graftings, or from layerings or dividings. The following descriptions of these five methods, together with Appendix 3, which indicates the most practical methods for various types of trees, should put anyone who is truly interested well on the way to the creation of a bonsai. It might be noted here that miniature bonsai (these are small enough to be held easily in the palm of one hand, pot and all; see classification on page 62) can be made only from seedlings or cuttings; trees with variegated leaves, only from cuttings; and crossbreeds, only from seedlings.

BONSAI FROM NATURALLY STUNTED PLANTS

In Japan these bonsai are the most highly prized of all and the finest trees are natural dwarfs. They are collected from high up in the mountains or on the seashore, where the soil is poor and where strong winds tend to distort the trunk (see Plates 1-10). The shape of the trunk is of paramount importance as, being old wood, it cannot be altered. The branches of natural dwarfs are usually poor but this need not discourage the finder as they can be improved by careful pruning. Wild seedlings can also be collected and trained, being especially suitable for group plantings. The greatest advantage of this type of bonsai, adding no little zest to the hunt, is that, given luck and persistence, the collector may find a natural dwarf which can be made into a really good bonsai in record time. We ourselves have seen such bonsai which, after about a year's training, looked older and more finished than others which had been in training for many years.

The hunt for natural bonsai can be a most pleasant sport in itself, one which has been practiced so assiduously for so many generations in Japan, and even in nearby countries, that good specimens are today almost never found outside the protected areas of national parks. Other countries, where such stunted trees have not been prized, offer much better hunting grounds, but even so, the hunter should scrupulously abide by local regulations in the interest of conservation and, as a nature lover, should always collect his specimens with moderation and in such a way as to do no harm to the natural scenery.

The best season for collecting is in early spring before the new buds open. Pines may also be transplanted in early autumn, after the end of the summer growth but before the winter hardening of the twigs begins. In the case of deciduous trees, it is possible, although not advisable, to transplant them when they are in leaf, but this should on no account be done until the summer, and half the leaves should be stripped off as soon as the tree has been dug up. The most dangerous season for transplanting deciduous trees is when the leaves are newly opened and still tender.

Before setting out on a collecting expedition, it is well to prepare the following articles, which are described in more detail in Appendix 1: a small trowel or shovel, sharp scissors, a quantity of sphagnum moss, oiled paper or plastic sheeting, and. some string. A small crowbar may sometimes be needed to break rocks, and a hook on the end of a stick is also convenient.

When a suitable tree has been found, it is important to retain as large a quantity as possible of the surrounding earth. The tree must be dug out very carefully, if possible without cutting the taproot. If this is unavoidable, the root should be cut as low down as possible, particularly in the case of pines. The earth and roots are then covered with wet sphagnum moss and tied up in the paper or plastic sheet.

During transportation back to the nursery, the tree should be propped up carefully so that it does not roll about or get unduly jolted. It must be kept in the open air and not put for any great length of time into any place so tightly enclosed as, say, the luggage compartment of a car. During the journey it needs protection from the sun and wind and the leaves must be sprayed with water often enough to keep them damp. A large perfume-spray is useful for this purpose.

The tree should be planted as soon as its destination is reached. If it has small, fine roots near the trunk (this can be judged by whether the soil falls away from the trunk, for, if there are small roots, they will hold the soil), it is planted in a deep training pot without removing the original soil. Any root ends showing through the soil are trimmed off with a sharp knife. If the tree has only one or two large, thick roots, it is best planted out, together with its own soil, in a garden bed or a field.

After being planted, all trees should be protected from direct sun and wind, the earth kept moist, and the leaves sprayed at least three or four time!'; a day. After three or four months of this initial care the tree will begin to form new roots, at which point it is sufficiently established to benefit by manuring and may be allowed direct sunlight. Now it is no longer necessary to spray the leaves, though the earth of course should still be kept moist. If the tree is in good condition strong new buds will appear on the branches.

At the end of the first year the tree is transplanted from its training pot or from the ground into a pot suitable to its dimensions. Some of the original soil is still retained and the roots are trimmed. If there is an abundant growth of new roots at the base of the trunk, the roots are cut as described in the case of repotting (Chapter 3). If, however, only a few fine roots have formed round the thick taproot, this is only slightly pruned; if it is cut back drastically, the tree will die. The taproot is pruned again at the end of the second year, and finally cut off short at the end of the third year. This final cutting, however, should only be done when new roots have appeared at the base. This type of root formation is very common in pines and needs very careful treatment.

Once the tree is strong and well established, the branches may be wired and shaped, usually about three months after the second repotting, that is, when it has been in the nursery for rather more than two years. As described in the chapter on training, the branches should be arranged so as to display to best advantage the beauty of the trunk.

Not all trees lend themselves to natural dwarfing. Pines and junipers are perhaps the most common since mountains and sea-shore are their natural habitats. Among deciduous trees, maples, elms, hornbeams, etc., are occasionally to be found.

BONSAI FROM SEED

Bonsai of any species may be bred from seed, although of course this method takes the most time (see Plates 11- 13). For good results, it is essential to use fresh seed, which should be collected in the autumn and is best planted directly. If it is necessary to keep the seed till the following spring, it is enclosed in an airtight container and kept dry and cool, in the refrigerator if desired, and then sown in the early spring, before the budding season.

The seed may be sown in a pot, a box, or prepared ground. Before sowing, it is soaked overnight and, in the case of fruit stones or other hard-shelled seeds, the shell is broken to help germination. The pot is filled with soil in the Same way as for repotting (Chapter 3). The seed is placed on the surface of this soil, (if there is more than one seed, care should be taken that they do not touch each other) and the whole covered with topsoil to about twice the depth of the seed. The pot is then watered, never with a can, but by standing it in a container of water long enough for the moisture to permeate upwards to the surface of the soil; this procedure will take only a few minutes if the level of the water in the container is as high as the surface of the soil in the pot. The topsoil is next covered with a layer of damp sphagnum moss, chaff, or wood shavings. This should be lifted from time to time to make Sure that the soil is not getting too dry. The pot may be kept either outside or indoors. At the end of a week the entire moss covering should be lifted and, if there are signs of germination, removed altogether. The pot must be set out of doors where it can get direct sunshine and the seedlings watered regularly (from a can) and kept well weeded.

Fig. 1. — Ordinary cutting (camellia). A) Parent branch. 1) Remove flower buds. 2) Scissor-cuts (to produce four cuttings). B) Prepared cutting (from topmost cut of A). 3) Remove lower leaves. 4) Scissor-trim upper leaves. 5) Knife-cut stem. 6) Cut stem. 2 views. C) Cutting planted about 6 mos. 7) Root development. D) Transplanted to training pot.

Pine seedlings should be left undisturbed for a full year, but deciduous seedlings can be lifted after six months except in the case of very slow-growing trees. The seedlings are separated and transferred either to individual small pots or to the open ground. The latter produces quicker results, but is less convenient. The seedlings require normal all-year-round care until they are fit for training.

BONSAI FROM CUTTINGS

With the exception of pines, almost all trees can be bred from cuttings (see Plates 14-17). The cuttings are taken in the same way as for ordinary full-sized trees. There are two seasons for taking cuttings: early spring, when the new buds are beginning to swell; and early autumn (September in a normal temperate climate), when plants make a last growing effort before becoming dormant. In Japan the rainy season in June is also considered suitable.

A cutting should be from three to five inches long with three or five nodes on it (see Fig. 1). It is taken from the parent branch by cutting straight across with sharp scissors, just below a node. If the tree is of the large-leafed variety and the cutting is made after the budding season, one-third of each leaf must be cut off. All buds or leaves should be removed for half an inch at the bottom of the shoot. This end is then cut on the slant with a knife just below a node as this node will form the lowest root. If the shoot is thicker than an ordinary pencil, a double cut will be needed on either side of the stem, one cut being longer than the other. When the shoot is a very thick one (Fig. 2) it is necessary either to make two tapering cuts in the end, or else to make a deep notch, into which a small stone or piece of wood is inserted to prevent its closing, after which the aperture is filled with day or loam.

Fig. 2. — Very thick cutting (flowering quince). A) Tapering method. 1) Scissorcuts. 2) Knife-cut from parent branch. 3) Tapering knife-cuts. B & C) Notch method. 4) Knife-cut notch. 5) Soil. 6) Clay. 7) Pebble or piece of wood.

Key to Color Plate 5. 1) Winter chrysanthemum. 2) Ardisia. 3) Bird's-eye. 4) Stones. 5) Dwarf bamboo. 6)Japanese ground orchid.

In the case of evergreens, the prepared cutting must be laid in water for several hours, the leaves, if any, above the surface. Leaves should not be pruned away entirely, as they assist growth.

Thus prepared, the shoot is planted to the depth of about an inch in a pot or box of coarse, well aerated, sandy soil and watered thoroughly both from below and from above. The soil must be kept moist and the leaves sprayed, particularly in the evening. Roots develop readily from the nodes, and at the end of six to twelve months, depending upon the species, the cutting may be transplanted into a training pot or, as in the case of seedlings, into the ground. The pot should be kept out of doors but protected, during the first three months, from wind and direct sunlight. If the cutting has taken successfully, fresh buds and leaves will appear, after which normal everyday care is sufficient.

Color Plate 5. Seasonal group planting: New Years. See planting chart above.

Color Plate 6. Weeping forsythia. Clump style. 10". About 25 yrs. Produced by dividing. Glozed Chinese pot of Kuang-tung wore.

Color Plate 7. Wild-thyme azalea. Clinging-to-a-rock style. 1'.7 yrs. Produced from a cutting and planted on rock 3 yrs. ago. Bronze container by Houn Harada of Tokyo, in the shallow depth particularly suited to this style. This type of azalea brooms twice yearly.

BONSAI BY GRAFTING

With the exception of the rough-barked black pine (nishiki), which cannot be bred successfully by other means, first-quality bonsai can never be created by grafting. The method is often used, however, in the interest of speed, particularly in the case of the cheaper commercial bonsai; it may be readily detected by the unsightly scar which the graft leaves on the trunk. It is fairly common to find a five-needle pine grafted onto an ordinary black pine as the latter quickly produces a handsome trunk.

Grafting should be done in early spring. It is important to choose the right moment. The accompanying Table of Graftings indicates the appropriate times for the Tokyo area only, but the general rule is that the scion must still be dormant, with no sap yet rising in it, while in the stock the sap has already begun to rise. The shoot from which the scions are taken will have been cut from its tree, to a length of less than a yard and with winter buds on it, in the late autumn of the previous year and kept buried up to two-thirds of its length in the ground (see Fig. 5). Now, depending upon the thickness of the scion required for a particular grafting, all but the upper and lower few inches of this shoot may be cut into sections to make a number of scions; each should be between an inch and a half and two inches long with one or two strong buds on it (see Fig. 5). The stock should be a seedling about two or three years old and in vigorous condition.

TABLE OF GRAFTINGS

Stock	Scion	Tokyo Grafting Season
Apple Wild crab-apple	Apple	Mid-March
Wild crab-apple	Crab apple	Mid-March
Oshima cherry	Cherry	Late February to mid-March
Trifoliata citron	Citrus family	Late April to early May
Black pine	Five-needle pine	Late February to early March
Peach Plum	Peach	Mid-March
Pear	Pear	Early March
Persimmon Dwarf persimmon	Persimmon	Late March to early April
Japanese flowering apricot (ume)	Japanese flowering apricot	Early to mid-March
Wisteria	Wisteria	Early to mid-March

Fig. 3. — Top grafting (five-needle pine onto black pine). A) Prepared scion, 2 views. 1) Knife-cut stem. 2) Knife-cut needles. 3) Knife-trim stem. B) Preparing stock. 4) First scissor-cut and then knife-cut smooth. 5) Knife-cut cleft. C) Inserting scion in stock, 3 views. D) Bound graft. E) After 2-3 mos.

There are a number of grafting methods. Two principal methods-top and side grafting-are described below in detail. See also Figs. 3-7 and Plates 18-25.

Top grafting (Fig. 3). This method is particularly suitable for pines and is the easier of the two. The stock should not be thicker than a pencil and the top is cut off straight across, leaving four or five bunches of needles adhering to the stem. The stock is then split down the middle with a sharp knife to the depth of about half an inch. The scion should be about an inch long and, if possible, of the same thickness as the stock. The lower end is cut into a wedge which will fit into the split in the stock, approximately a third of an inch each of bare stem and needles remaining above this point. If, when the scion is inserted into the stock, it is found to be slightly smaller, it must be placed to one side so that one edge of the bark of the scion is flush with the bark of the stock. The needles are all gathered up together and the graft bound with raffia (this must be removed at the end of the year) or rice straw (this need not be removed, as it will decay naturally). The plant is then put in a shady place, protected from the wind, for two weeks, after which its care is the same as for ordinary bonsai.

Fig. 4. — Side grafting (five-needle pine onto black pine). A) Scion, 3 views. 1) Scissor-cut. 2) Long cut. 3) Short cut. B) Inserting scion in stock. C) Sectional views. 4) Knife-cut stack. 5) Scion inserted. D) Finishing. 6) Scissor-cut top of stock. 7) Bind graft. E) After 6 mos. 8) Scissor-cut stock above graft.

Side grafting (Fig. 4). This method may be used for all types of trees, including pines. It requires a rather heavier stock. A slanting cut is made in the trunk, about two-thirds of an inch deep. The scion is trimmed so that the inner side has a long cut and the outer side a short one. In the case of a needle tree, if the needles of the scion are too long, they should be trimmed back to about one inch. The scion is inserted and bound into place and cared for in the same way as in the case of top grafting. After about six months the stock extending above the joint is cut off.

Cleft grafting. See Figs. 5 & 6.

Inarching grafting. See Fig. 7.

Fig. 5. — Cleft grafting, preparation. A) Parent tree showing scissor-cutting points. B) Dormant shoots buried in mound of earth. C) Cutting shoot into scions. 1) Portions discorded. 2) Portion used. 3) Scissor cuts, leaving 1-2 nodes on each scion. 0) Trimming scion, 3 views. 4) Long cut. 5) Short cut. E) Stock trimming. F) Trimmed stock. 6) Slightly bevel entire circumference. 7) Slice off a segment. G) Single-cut cleft for thin scion. 8) Knife-cut downward. 9) Cut through cambium. H) Double-cut cleft for heavy scion. 10) Knife cuts. 11) Remove section from cut.

BONSAI BY LAYERING AND DIVIDING