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1 1. Du Bois, W. B. “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” Journal of Negro Education, 1935, 4, 328–335.

2 2. Murrell, P. “Afrocentric Immersion: Academic and Personal Development of African American Males in Public Schools.” In T. Perry and J. Fraser, Freedom’s Plow: Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1993, 231–256.

3 3. Bray, R. “The Miseducation of Our Children.” Essence, Sept. 1987, pp. 79–80, 153–156.

4 4. Edelman, M. Families in Peril: An Agenda for Social Change. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987.

5 5. Chan, V., and Momparler, M. “George Bush’s Report Card: What’s He Got Against Kids?” Mother Jones, May/June 1991, pp. 44–45.

6 6. Kunjufu, J. Developing Discipline and Positive Self-Images in Black Children. Chicago: Afro-American Images, 1984.

7 7. The first wave of educational reform was initiated by the Commission on Excellence in Education’s A Nation at Risk and was aimed largely at school improvement. The second wave, ushered in by the Holmes Group report Teachers for Tomorrow’s Schools and the Carnegie report A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the Twenty-First Century, focused on teacher reform.

8 8. Harlan, S. “Compared to White Children, Black Children are . . .” USA Today, June 5, 1985, p. 9A.

9 9. Chan and Momparler, “George Bush’s Report Card,” p. 44.

10 10. “Saving Our Schools.” Fortune, Spring 1990 (special issue).

11 11. Murrell, P. “Our Children Deserve Better.” Rethinking Schools, Dec./ Jan. 1988, 2(2), 1, 4, 15.

12 12. Ratteray, J. D. What’s in a Norm: How African Americans Score on Achievement Tests. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Independent Education, 1989.

13 13. Ratteray, J. D. Access to Quality: Private Schools in Chicago’s Inner City. Heartland Policy Study, no. 9. Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1986.

14 14. Lowe, R. “The Struggle for Equal Education: An Historical Note.” Rethinking Schools, Dec./Jan. 1988, 2(2), 5.

15 15. Irvine, J. “Black Parents’ Perceptions of Their Children’s Desegregated School Experiences.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, Mass., April 1990.

16 16. Du Bois, W.E.B. “Perchstein and Pecksniff.” Crisis, Sept. 1929, 36, 313–314.

17 17. Fleming, J. Blacks in College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984.

18 18. See, for example, Bacon, M. “High-Potential Students from Ravenswood Elementary School District (Follow-Up Study),” unpublished report to the Sequoia Union High School District, Redwood City, Calif., 1981; and Lomotey, K., and Staley, J. “The Education of African Americans in the Buffalo Public Schools: An Exploratory Study,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, Mass., April 1990.

19 19. Lomotey, K., and Staley, J. “The Education of African Americans.”

20 20. Bell, D. And We Are Not Saved: The Elusive Quest for Racial Justice. New York: Basic Books, 1987.

21 21. McPartland, J. “The Relative Influence of School and of Classroom Desegregation on the Academic Achievement of Ninth-Grade Negro Students.” Journal of Social Issues, 1969, 25(3), 93–103.

22 22. Grant, C., and Secada, W. “Preparing Teachers for Diversity.” In W. R. Houston (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. New York: Macmillan, 1990, 403–422.

23 23. Ladson-Billings, G. “Who Will Teach Our Children: Preparing Teachers to Successfully Teach African American Students.” In E. Hollins, J. King, and W. Hayman (eds.), Building the Knowledge Base for Teaching Culturally Diverse Learners. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1994.

24 24. For examples see Bloom, B., Davis, A., and Hess, R., Compensatory Education for Cultural Deprivation. Troy, Mo.: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965; Bettelheim, B., “Teaching the Disadvantaged,” National Education Association Journal, 1965, 54, 8–12; Ornstein, A., and Vairo, P. (eds.), How to Teach Disadvantaged Youth, New York: McKay, 1968; Ornstein, A., “The Need for Research on Teaching the Disadvantaged,” Journal of Negro Education, 1971, 40(2), 133–139.

25 25. For examples of this literature see Austin, G., “Exemplary Schools and the Search for Effectiveness,” Educational Leadership, 1979, 37, 10–14; Brookover, W. B., and Lezotte, L. “Changes in School Characteristics Coincident with Changes in Student Achievement,” unpublished paper, Michigan State University, 1979 (ERIC ED 181 005); and Edmonds, R., “Effective Schools for the Urban Poor,” Educational Leadership, 1970, 37, 15–24.

26 26. Cohen, E., and Benton, J. “Making Groupwork Work.” American Educator, Fall 1988, pp. 10–17, 45–46.

27 27. Ladson-Billings, G., “Who Will Teach Our Children,” pp. 129–142.

28 28. Bloom, B., Davis, A., and Hess, R., Compensatory Education.

29 29. Bettelheim, 1965; Ornstein and Vairo, 1968; Ornstein, 1971; Doll, R., and Hawkins, M., Educating the Disadvantaged. New York: AMS Press, 1971; Hyram, G., Challenge to Society: The Education of the Culturally Disadvantaged Child, Vol. 1, New York: Pagent-Poseidon, Ltd., 1972.

30 30. Mitchell, J. “Reflections of a Black Social Scientist: Some Struggles, Some Doubts, Some Hopes.” Harvard Educational Review, 1982, 52, 27–44.

31 31. Cuban, L. “The ‘At-Risk’ Label and the Problem of Urban School Reform.” Phi Delta Kappan, 1989, 70, 780–784, 799–801.

32 32. Hollins, E. R. “A Reexamination of What Works for Inner City Black Children.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, Mass., April 1990.

33 33. Levine, D., and Stark, J. “Instructional and Organizational Arrangements that Improve Achievement in Inner-City Schools.” Educational Leadership, Dec. 1982, pp. 41–46.

34 34. Comer, J. “New Haven’s School-Community Connection.” Educational Leadership, Mar. 1987, pp. 13–16.

35 35. Hollins, E. R. “A Conceptual Framework for Selecting Instructional Approaches and Materials for Inner City Black Youngsters.” Paper commissioned by the California Curriculum Commission Ad Hoc Committee on Special Needs Students, Sacramento, Calif., March 1989, p. 15.

36 36. Cummins, J. “Empowering Minority Students.” Harvard Educational Review, 1986, 17(4), 18–36.

37 37. Au, K., and Jordan, C. “Teaching Reading to Hawaiian Children: Finding a Culturally Appropriate Solution.” In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, and K. Au (eds.), Culture and the Bilingual Classroom: Studies in Classroom Ethnography. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1981, 139–152.

38 38. Hollins, E. R. “The Marva Collins Story Revisited.” Journal of Teacher Education, 1982, 32(1), 37–40.

39 39. See, for example, Fordham, S., and Ogbu, J., “Black Students’ School Success: Coping with the Burden of ‘Acting White,’ ” The Urban Review, 1986, 18(3), 1–31; Bacon, 1981; McLaren, P., Life in Schools: An Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Foundations of Education. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1989.

40 40. Kohl, H. I Won’t Learn from You! The Role of Assent in Learning. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 1991.

41 41. See Hirshberg, C., “Bayton’s Boys Do the Right Thing,” Life, Sept. 1991, pp. 24–28, 30, 32; and Holland, S., “Positive Primary Education for Young Black Males,” Education Week, Mar. 25, 1987, 6, 24.

42 42. Eisner, E. “The Art and Craft of Teaching.” Educational Leadership, 1982, 40, 4–13.

43 43. Giroux, H., and Simon, R. “Popular Culture and Critical Pedagogy: Everyday Life as a Basis for Curriculum Knowledge.” In P. McLaren and H. Giroux, (eds.), Critical Pedagogy, the State, and Cultural Struggle. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989, 236–252.