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The impact of the stressor event on the family’s level of stress is moderated by the definition or meaning the family gives to the event. This variable is also synonymous with family appraisal, perception, and assessment of the event. Thus, subjective definitions can vary from viewing circumstances as a challenge and an opportunity for growth, to the negative view that things are hopeless, too difficult, or unmanageable (Lavee, 2013; McCubbin & Patterson, 1985). Empirical findings suggest that an individual’s cognitive appraisal of life events strongly influences the response (Lazarus & Launier, 1978), and may be the most important component in determining an individual’s or family’s response to a stressor event (Boss, 2002; Hennon et al., 2009).

This concept has a long tradition in social psychology in terms of the self-fulfilling prophecy that, if something is perceived as real, it is real in its consequences (Burr, 1982). Families who are able to redefine a stressor event more positively (i.e., reframe it) appear to be better able to cope and adapt. By redefining, families are able to (a) clarify the issues, hardships, and tasks to render them more manageable and responsive to problem-solving efforts; (b) decrease the intensity of the emotional burdens associated with stressors; and (c) encourage the family unit to carry on with its fundamental tasks of promoting individual member’s social and emotional development (Lavee, 2013; McCubbin & McCubbin, 2013; McCubbin & Patterson, 1985).

Additional factors which could influence families’ perceptions in a stressful situation include spirituality, values and beliefs, culture, and stage of the family life cycle (e.g., Emmen et al., 2013; McCubbin & McCubbin, 2013; Walsh, 2013a; Yeh et al., 2006). As noted earlier, there has been an increased emphasis on the role of spirituality, beliefs, and faith on family stress. Boss (2002, 2006) discussed several cases where a strong sense of spirituality results in a more positive attitude, hope, and optimism when families are confronted with a stressful situation. Faith can be a major coping mechanism promoting family resilience (Martin, Distelberg, & Elahad, 2015) and causing families to turn to their religious institutions and communities more than cognitive problem solving (Walsh, 2013a). Of course, spirituality can be experienced within or outside formal religious institutions. Regardless of the source, spiritual associations can bring a sense of meaning, wholeness, and connection with others. For example, religious communities provide guidelines for living and scripted ways to make major life transitions, as well as congregational support in times of need (Walsh, 2006, 2013a).

The belief system or value orientation of families may also influence their perceptions of stressful events. Families with a mastery orientation may believe they can solve any problem and control just about anything that could happen to them. For example, a recent study found that adolescent mastery orientation served to increase health promotion behaviors in teens despite family stress (Kwon & Wickrama, 2014). In contrast, families with a fatalistic orientation are more likely to believe that everything is determined by a higher power, therefore, all events are predetermined and not under their control. This orientation could be a barrier to coping because it encourages passivity, and active coping strategies have been found to be more effective than passive strategies (e.g., Boss, 2002; Yeh et al., 2006). The influence of belief and value orientations can also be mediated by culture (McCubbin & McCubbin, 2013; Yeh et al., 2006).

Culture influences the family stress process through (1) values or value orientations and (2) minority and immigrant status—both of which influence perceptions, coping strategies, and resources (Emmen et al., 2013; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Yeh et al., 2006; Walsh, 2013a). Researchers of individual models of coping have made some strides in identifying how cultural values and social norms influence coping strategies. Scholars in this area have asserted that coping is not dualistic (e.g., Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) with only action oriented coping strategies resulting in positive outcomes, but rather cultural context also plays a part (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Lam & Zane, 2004; Yeh et al., 2006). While taking direct action (e.g., confronting others, standing up for oneself) is a preferred and effective strategy in individualist cultural contexts; in collectivistic contexts, the emphasis on group harmony and interdependence leads individuals to enact coping strategies that focus on changing themselves to meet the needs of the group, instead of attempting to change the situation (Lam & Zane, 2004; Yeh et al., 2006). Scholars examining the cultural context of stress and family stress have focused on models that account for the depth and complexity of cultural and ethnic influences on family systems related to family stress and resilience. For example, McCubbin and McCubbin (2013) created the Relational and Resilience Theory of Ethnic Family Systems, which was designed to identify and validate competencies among ethnic/cultural families that facilitate successful adaption in the context of family stress. Similarly, McNeil Smith and Landor (2018) developed the sociocultural family stress model to help better understand the experience of family stress within racially and ethnically diverse families (see James, Barrios, Roy, & Lee, Chapter 12 in this volume).

The stage of the family life cycle can also influence a family’s perceptions during a stressful event. Where the family currently exists in the family life cycle, points to the variation in structure, composition, interaction (between family members as well as between the family and the outside culture), and resources of that family (Henry et al., 2015; Price et al., 2000; Walsh, 2013b). Consequently, families at different stages of the life cycle vary in their response to stressful situations. This is particularly relevant as families move from one stage of development to another during normative transitions. It is during these periods of change (a child is born, children leave home, a family member dies) that families are likely to experience high levels of stress as they adjust rules, roles, and patterns of behavior (Aldous, 1996; Carter & McGoldrick, 2005). This stress is also affected by whether the transition is “on time” or “off time” as well as expected or unexpected (Rodgers & White, 1993). In general, off time (e.g., a child dies before a parent dies) and unexpected (a family member is diagnosed with a terminal illness) transitions create periods of greater stress. The significance of this stress could, at least partially, be attributed to the family members’ perception of the stressful situation as being overwhelming or unfair.