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¹Indigenous people constitute a majority of the population in Bolivia and Guatemala and a significant minority in Ecuador and Peru. Afro-descendants are a majority in the Dominican Republic and Panama; they form 45% of the population in Brazil and more than 10% of the population in Colombia, Venezuela, and Nicaragua.

²Double discrimination is when a person or a group is targeted for more than one form of discrimination. In Brazil, women face discrimination for being women, poor, and/or being of say Afro-descent or belonging to the indigenous groups.

³Judith A. Morrison in her article entitled “Behind the Numbers: Race and Ethnicity in Latin America” in the Americas Quarterly (2016) examines the conditions of the indigenous and ethnic groups from Latin America and the initiatives made by various organizations and governments to deal with them. She further delineates the success and the failures of these groups to find a voice for themselves within these countries. www.americasquarterly.com.

⁴The term “racial democracy” refers to a certain pattern of race relations in Brazil. Specifically, it suggests that Brazilian race relations have developed in a tolerant and conflict-free manner, in contrast to the presumed hostile form of race relations that evolved in the United States. The concept of racial democracy had at one point received such widespread acceptance that it was regarded as an essential component of Brazilian national identity. Brazilians distinguished themselves as unique for having achieved a level of racial tolerance that few other societies had attained. The origin of the term racial democracy remains unclear. António Sérgio Guimarães, a Professor at the University of São Paulo, suggests that its usage goes back to the 1940s, when the Brazilian anthropologist Arthur Ramos and the French sociologist Roger Bastide employed the term to link this pattern of race relations to Brazil’s postwar democracy, which began to emerge at the end of the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas (1937–1945). However, the concept is more generally associated with the work of Gilberto Freyre (1900–1987), who proposed the idea in the 1930s in a daring departure from the scientific racist thinking that had prevailed within Brazilian intellectual circles since the beginning of the 20th century. Freyre stood the scientific racist thinking of the day on its head by arguing that Brazil’s pervasive mixing of the races was not a factor in Brazil’s failure to develop, but instead was testament to the achievements of a Brazilian civilization that had encouraged a pattern of tolerant race relations that was unique in the world. Freyre urged Brazilians to take pride in this, as well as in the displays of Afro-Brazilian culture that were prevalent throughout Brazil. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/racial-democracy-brazil.

⁵See the report by the Organization of American States in IACHR, The Situation of People of African descent in the Americas, OEA/Ser.L/V/II, Doc. 62, 5 December 2011, p. 76. In Human Rights in Latin America: The Case of Women and People of African Descent Robert Owoo http://www.e-ir.info/2016/07/19/human-rights-in-latin-america-the-case-of-women-and-people-of-african-descent.

⁶The Democratic Party claimed that this policy of the Universidade de Brasilia unconstitutional under Article 5 of the Brazilian constitution which protects equality of all citizens regardless of race.

⁷The Tribunal claimed that the Brazilian policy is in accordance with Article 1 (a) and (b) which calls for implementing a national policy that promotes more equality in educational opportunities. Article 1 Section 4 on the Convention on Elimination of Racial Discrimination states race will not be the primary factor in determining access to higher education, but rather a factor taken into consideration, which complies with Article 13 Section 2 (c) of the International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Brazilian policy enables the universities to serve the most vulnerable groups without discrimination.

⁸Brazil was the last country in the Americas to end slavery, and the Portuguese were the largest importers of slaves, bringing to Brazil 38% of the approximate 9,500,000 Africans forcibly transported to the Americas.

⁹Currently, they occupy about 10.38% of the seats.

¹⁰See http://lac.unwomen.org/en/noticias-y-eventos/articulos/2016/05/mujeres-brazil.