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1 1. https://arctic-council.org/en/about/.

2 2. https://www.northernforum.org/en/the-northern-forum/about-us.

3 3. http://www.arcticcircle.org/about/about/.

4 4. https://iasc.info/iasc/about-iasc.

5 5. Cf. Oran R. Young, “The Internationalization of the Circumpolar North: Charting a Course for the 21st Century,” http://www.thearctic.is/articles/topics/internationaization/enska/kafli_0200.htm.

6 6. Fridtjof Nansen, Farthest North (New York: Harper, 1907).

7 7. Maritime Executive, “IMO authorizes new Bering Sea routing,” May 26, 2018, https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/imo-authorizes-new-bering-sea-routing.

8 8. See the chapter by Suzanne Lalonde in this volume about the Canada-U.S. dispute over the status of the Northwest Passage.

9 9. See the chapter by Lassi Heininen in this volume about Arctic cooperation and the “Arctic paradox” of warming leading to more petroleum development leading to more warming.

10 10. Nele Matz-Lück, “Planting the Flag in Arctic Waters: Russia’s Claim to the North Pole,” Göttingen Journal of International Law 1, 2 (2009), pp. 235–55, doi: 10.3249/1868-1581-1-2-matz-lueck; Klaus Doods, “Flag Planting and Finger Pointing: The Law of the Sea, the Arctic and the Political Geographies of the Outer Continental Shelf,” Political Geography 29, 2 (February 2010), pp. 63–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2010.02.004. See also Nicole Bayat Grajewski, “Russia’s Great Power Assertion: Status-Seeking in the Arctic,” St Antony’s International Review 13: 1, The Politics of Uncertainty (May 2017), pp. 141–163, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26229126.

11 11. IMO, International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code), http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/polar/Documents/POLAR%20CODE%20TEXT%20AS%20ADOPTED.pdf.

12 12. Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean, signed in Ilulissat, Greenland, October 3, 2018. https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/international/agreement-accord-eng.htm.

13 13. Nicole L. Kanayurak, A Case Study of Polar Bear Co-Management in Alaska, unpublished Master’s Thesis (Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 2016).

14 14. Yamal Liquid Natural Gas, “About the Project,” 2015. http://yamallng. ru/en/project/about/.

15 15. See the chapter by Holm Olsen in this volume about the rights of Arctic peoples to determine their own futures.

16 16. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, The Arctic Assessment Report (Oslo: AMAP, 1997). See also “Persistent Organic Pollutants: A Global Issue, A Global Response,” https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/persistent-organic-pollutants-global-issue-global-response. Cf. J. Ma, H. Hung, C. Tian et al., “Revolatilization of Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Arctic induced by Climate Change,” Nature Climate Change 1 (2011), pp. 255–260, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate116.

17 17. Ilka Peeken, Sebastian Primpke, Birte Beyer, Julia Gütermann, Christian Katlein, Thomas Krumpen, Melanie Bergmann, Laura Hehemann, and Gunnar Gerdts, “Arctic Sea Ice is an Important Temporal Sink and Means of Transport for Microplastic,” Nature Communications 9 (2018), article 1505. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03825-5.

18 18. John R. Bockstoce, Fur and Frontiers in the Far North (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010).

19 19. Idem., Whales, Ice & Men (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1986). See also John McCannon, A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation (London: Reaktion Books, 2012).

20 20. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “All-Nation Historical Catch of Pollock from the Bering Sea 1977–2006,” https://www.afsc.noaa.gov/refm/cbs/Docs/CBS%20Pollock%20Catch%20History.pdf.

21 21. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, op. cit. See also, Helen Glanville et al., “A 20,000-tonne Oil Spill is Contaminating the Arctic – It Could Take Decades to Clean Up,” The Conversation, July 14, 2020, https://theconversation.com/a-20-000-tonne-oil-spill-is-contaminating-the-arctic-it-could-take-decades-to-clean-up-141264; Anna Kireeva, “Oil Spill in Russian Artic had Many Causes, Environmentalists Say,” Bellona, June 22, 2020, https://bellona.org/news/arctic/2020-06-oil-spill-in-russian-artic-had-many-causes-environmentalists-say.

22 22. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, The Arctic Biodiversity Assessment (Akureyri, Iceland: Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, 2013).

23 23. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, op. cit.; Arctic Human Development Report (Akureyri, Iceland: Stefansson Arctic Institute, 2004).

24 24. For the development of Arctic narratives and competition among them, see see the chapter by Oran Young in this volume.

25 25. Callum Roberts, The Unnatural History of the Sea (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2008).

26 26. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status and Conservation (Helsinki: Edita, 2001). Cf. Ellen M. Gilmer, “Judges Weigh Trump’s Bid to Reopen Parts of Arctic to Drilling,” Bloomberg Law, June 6, 2020, https://news.bloomberglaw.com/environment-and-energy/judges-weigh-trumps-bid-to-reopen-parts-of-arctic-to-drilling.

27 27. See, for example, Nadia French, Can the Econsystem Approach (EA) Work in Arctic Science and Governance?”, Nov. 30, 2017, http://polarconnection.org/ecosystem-approach/. Cf. Robert Siron et al, “Ecosystem-Based Management in the Arctic Ocean: A Multi-Level Spatial Approach,” ARCTIC 61, 1 (2008), pp. 86–102.

28 28. Michael Meredith and Martin Sommerkorn, “Polar regions,” chapter 3 in IPCC, Special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate (Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019). Also, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

29 29. For why war in the Arctic is unlikely, see the chapter by Ernie Regehr in this volume.

30 30. See John R. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1986).

31 31. See Heiner Kubny, “Arctic – nuclear waste should be recovered,” Polar Journal, June 15, 2020, https://polarjournal.ch/en/2020/06/15/arctic-nuclear-waste-should-be-recovered/; Nuclear Wastes in the Arctic: An Analysis of Arctic and Other Regional Impacts from Soviet Nuclear Contamination, OTA-ENV-623 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1995), http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/stevens2/docs/ota-env-632.pdf; Per Strand et al., “Radioactive Contamination in the Arctic—Sources, Dose Assessment and Potential Risks,” Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 60, 1–2 (2002), pp. 5–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0265-931X(01)00093-5.

32 32. For example, Arctic Economic Council: https://arcticeconomiccouncil.com/; Council on Foreign Relations, “The emerging Arctic: risks and opportunities,” https://www.cfr.org/interactives/emerging-arctic#!/emerging-arctic; Per-Ola Karlsson and Laurence C. Smith, “Is the Arctic the Next Emerging Market?,” World View, Aug. 27, 2013, https://www.strategy-business.com/article/00205.

33 33. See Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Arctic Pollution Issues: A State of the Arctic Environment Report (Oslo: AMAP, 1997).

34 34. Cf. Henry P. Huntington et al., “Evidence suggests potential transformation of the Pacific Arctic Ecosystem is underway,” Nature Climate Change 10 (2002), pp. 342–8, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0695-2. Also Rasmus K. Larsen et al., “Do Voluntary Corporate Actions Improve Cumulative Effects Assessment? Mining Companies’ Performance on Sami lLands,” The Extractive Industries and Society 5, 3 (2018), pp. 375–383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. exis.2018.04.003.

35 35. For the prospects of Arctic resource development and reasons why a major rush may not be inevitable, see the chapter by Arild Moe in this volume.

36 36. Cf. Henry P.Huntington et al., “Climate Change in Context: Putting People First in the Arctic,” Regional Environmental Change 19 (2019), pp. 1217–23, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-019-01478-8; Adam Stepien et al., “Arctic Indigenous Peoples and the Challenge of Climate Change,” in Sandra Clavalieri et al. eds, Arctic marine governance: Opportunities for transatlantic cooperation (Heidelberg: Springer, 2014), pp. 71–99. Listen also to the following Brookings event: “Arctic Indigenous Peoples, Displacement, and Climate Change: Tracing the Connections,” January 30, 2013, https://www.brookings.edu/ events/arctic-indigenous-peoples-displacement-and-climate-change-tracing-the-connections/.

37 37. See for example, Luís Gabriel A.Barboza, “Microplastics in Wild Fish from North East Atlantic Ocean and Its Potential for Causing Neurotoxic Effects, Lipid Oxidative Damage, and Human Health Risks Associated with Ingestion Exposure,” Science of The Total Environment 717, May 15, 2020, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134625; Madeleine Smith et al, “Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health,” Current Environmental Health Reports 5, 3 (2018), pp. 375–86, doi: 10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z.

38 38. On tipping points in Arctic regimes, see the chapter by Victoria Herrmann in this volume.

39 39. On avoiding conflict in the Arctic, see the chapter by Alexander N. Vylegzhanin in this volume.