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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Analogy between moving object’s and electromagnetic wave’s angula...Figure 1.2 Normalized aperture field intensity distributions versus ρ/w Figure 1.3 Normalized aperture field intensity line cuts of Laguerre–Gaussia...Figure 1.4 Comparison between conventional and OAM beams. A uniformly illumi...Figure 1.5 Far‐field wavefront of (a) Airy disk and (b, c) Laguerre–Gaussian...Figure 1.6 Normalized directivities of the Airy disk pattern with aperture d...Figure 1.7 Changes of amplitude pattern shape from the reactive near‐field t...Figure 1.8 OAM possible communication links: (a) OAM to the conventional ant...Figure 1.9 OAM communication challenges: (a) receiving with a perfectly alig...Figure 1.10 A schematic of multipath effects of an OAM channel caused by spe...Figure 1.11 A satellite‐based, geostationary navigation and guidance system ...Figure 1.12 OAM shift keying (OAM‐SK) modulation. OAM‐SK takes advantage of ...Figure 1.13 OAM division multiplexing (OAM‐DM) modulation. An independent da...Figure 1.14 A schematic illustrating the concept of three‐dimensional multip...Figure 1.15 A schematic representation of different types of optical fibers....Figure 1.16 Intensity profiles of LP modes and OAM modes. The constituent ei...Figure 1.17 (a) Cross‐section of a 19‐ring multi‐OAM multi‐ring fiber. (b) R...Figure 1.18 Analogy between conventional and OAM generation principle.Figure 1.19 Comparison between the generation method of conventional antenna...Figure 1.A.1 Schematic of the generation of OAM aperture field.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Linear antennas.Figure 2.2 Linear momentum radiated into the far zone from a single short di...Figure 2.3 Angular momentum radiated into the far zone from a single short d...Figure 2.4 Angular momentum radiated from two crossed dipoles.Figure 2.5 Top: OAM spectrum from the results of Event Horizon Telescope (EH...Figure 2.A.1 Source and sensor volumes.

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 (a) Configuration of the reflective metasurface setup for vortex‐...Figure 3.2 Geometry of the triple–dipole unit cell and layout of the designe...Figure 3.3 PEC–PMC‐based unit cell and the metasurface consisting of rotated...Figure 3.4 Example of the coding metasurface design. (a) Coding unit cell; (...Figure 3.5 (a) Space–frequency‐domain gradient metasurface.(b) configura...Figure 3.6 Examples of multilayer unit cells combined to form a transmission...Figure 3.7 Metasurface with the source integrated in the same layer.Figure 3.8 Prototype of the vortex‐beam emitter using spoof SPP waveguide. (...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of spatial transformation.Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of FDM printing technology.Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of SLA printing technology.Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of Polyjet printing technology.Figure 4.5 Schematic representation of the spatial transformation from virtu...Figure 4.6 Several combinations for generating different modes of vortex wav...Figure 4.7 Phase and far‐field distributions for different mode lenses at 12...Figure 4.8 Phase distributions of designed devices at 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 ...Figure 4.9 Numerical simulation results for the OAM generation device with m...Figure 4.10 (a) Experimental measurement setup of the proposed device in a m...Figure 4.11 Measured performances at 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 GHz. (a) Phase di...Figure 4.12 Schematic principle of the spatial transformation for designing ...Figure 4.13 (a) Permittivity curve of the engineered unit cells; (b) photogr...Figure 4.14 Photograph of the fabricated prototype of the microstrip patch a...Figure 4.15 Results of OAM array antennas used as a feeding source to illumi...Figure 4.16 Simulation results of OAM array antennas (without lens) and lens...Figure 4.17 Phase distributions at 10 GHz for different topological modes (l Figure 4.18 Schematic principle illustrating the near‐field measurement setu...Figure 4.19 Reflection coefficient responses of different feeds in presence ...Figure 4.20 Measured electric near‐field amplitude distributions in the xoy ...Figure 4.21 Measured near electric field phase distributions from 6 to 14 GH...Figure 4.22 Measured electric near‐field amplitude distributions at differen...Figure 4.23 Measured near electric field amplitude distributions in the xoz ...Figure 4.24 (a–e) Far‐field normalized radiation patterns without lens and w...Figure 4.25 Purity mode spectrum at 10 GHz. (a) Feeding source alone; (b) le...Figure 4.26 Illustration demonstrating the omnidirectional radiation process...Figure 4.27 Quasi‐conformal mapping from virtual domain to physical domain o...Figure 4.28 E‐field amplitude distribution in the x−z plane for an ope...Figure 4.29 Simulated far‐field radiation patterns of the different lens‐ant...Figure 4.30 Simulated phase distributions of the EM field component in the x...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Illustration of the vectorial electric field distributions in the...Figure 5.2 PS representation of the states‐of‐polarization of a plane wave....Figure 5.3 Higher‐order PS representation of the states‐of‐polarization of v...Figure 5.4 (a) Unit cell configuration and (b) the homogenized multilayer an...Figure 5.5 (a) Simulated CP transmission as a function of frequency for the Figure 5.6 (a) Configuration and (b) schematics of diffraction of a supercel...Figure 5.7 (a) Unit cell configuration and (b) the homogenized multilayer an...Figure 5.8 CP (a) transmission and (b) reflection magnitudes of the Q‐band g...Figure 5.9 Contour plots of simulated T_LR and T_RR as a function of both freq...Figure 5.10 Simulated (solid lines) and analytically (circles) calculated ph...Figure 5.11 (a) Unit cell configuration; (b) the first (fourth) and second (...Figure 5.12 Distribution of the simulated (a) cross‐polarized CP transmissio...Figure 5.13 (a) Steps for calculating the far‐field properties of the transm...Figure 5.14 (a) Distribution of the rotation angle (ϕ _r ) of the Ka‐band ...Figure 5.15 Normalized measured LCP and RCP components of the far‐field (a) ...Figure 5.16 Simulated and measured efficiency of the transmit‐array as a fun...Figure 5.17 Conceptual configurations of the geometric‐phase transmit‐array ...Figure 5.18 (a) Normalized simulated orthogonally‐polarized component of the...Figure 5.19 Schematics illustrating the use of a single geometric‐phase tran...Figure 5.20 (a) Cell rotation angle distribution ϕ _r (x, y) and (b) a pho...Figure 5.21 Normalized (a) measured and (b) calculated intensity patterns fo...Figure 5.22 (a) Cell rotation angle distribution ϕ _r (x, y) and (b) a pho...Figure 5.23 Normalized measured intensity patterns for different polarizatio...Figure 5.24 Phase delay distributions for both (a) ϕ _LR (x, y) and (b) ϕ...Figure 5.25 (a) Normalized calculated intensity patterns for different polar...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 (a–c) Intensity of an OAM beam with topological charge ℓ = −1, 0,...Figure 6.2 Examples of macroscopic vortex generating devices: (a) spiral pha...Figure 6.3 Metasurfaces for OAM beams generation [20,45–49].Figure 6.4 (a) Metamaterials applications in automobile industry [57]....Figure 6.5 Wavefront, intensity profiles, and interference patterns with a G...Figure 6.6 Applications of OAM beams. (a) Optical trapping [83].(b) nano...Figure 6.7 (a) Schematic of shared‐aperture phased array; (b) scanning elect...Figure 6.8 (a) Schematics of the proposed beam deflector with the unit cell ...Figure 6.9 Reconfigurable metasurfaces: (a) electrically tunable [89],(b...Figure 6.10 (a) Working principle of nonlinear metasurface with reconfigurab...Figure 6.11 From passive to active integrated OAM sources: (a) integrated OA...Figure 6.12 Spatial hole burning suppression and OAM lasing in a ring cavity...Figure 6.13 (a) Lasing characterization; (b) input–output laser curve, showi...Figure 6.14 (a) Measured chirality of laser emissions as a function of time ...Figure 6.15 Schematic of (a) a conventional liquid crystal in the nematic ph...Figure 6.16 (a) A three‐dimensional model of an MDOE designed to produce orb...Figure 6.17 Colloidal suspensions offer a unique platform for engineering op...Figure 6.18 Experimental setup (a) and results showing the formation of the ...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The phase distribution of an optical vortex beam for different to...Figure 7.2 The intensity (a–c) and the corresponding phase distribution (d–f...Figure 7.3 (a) The diagram of SPP.(b) a vortex beam generated by SPP.Figure 7.4 A fork‐shaped diffraction grating produced by computer simulation...Figure 7.5 The sketch of the fork‐shaped hologram that can produce many diff...Figure 7.6 (a) Layout structures of the SZP; (b) Binarized SZP.Figure 7.7 Experimentally measured intensity profile of different circular o...Figure 7.8 (a) Schematic setup of DMD based microlithography.(b) microgr...Figure 7.9 Schematic diagram of: (a) converter; (b) π converter.Figure 7.10 Schematics of the generation of compound vortex beams with oppos...Figure 7.11 (a) Experimental setup based on metasurfaces for generating and ...Figure 7.12 (a) SEM image of plasmonic metasurface (F2) with topological cha...Figure 7.13 The 2‐D experimental pattern of the perfect vortex beams with ρ₀ Figure 7.14 The experimental results of the perfect vortex beams with radius...Figure 7.15 Generation of perfect vortex beams through Fourier transformatio...Figure 7.16 Notation and coordinates for a helicodal phase step. [60].Figure 7.17 A density plot of the paraxial wave |ψ _α = 2.2| in the ...Figure 7.18 Layout structures of CGH for producing fractional vortex beams. ...Figure 7.19 Normalized 3D amplitude distribution (top), contour graph for th...Figure 7.20 The notation of the spiral slit for achieving an anomalous Besse...Figure 7.21 Intensity and the phase patterns of vortex beams with the differ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Schematic presentation of a scatterer that rotates at an angle of...Figure 8.2 Schematic and the response of the ultrathin complementary metasur...Figure 8.3 The composite PEC–PMC metasurfaces for OAM generation. (a) l = 1....Figure 8.4 The quadrupole‐xy and quadrupole‐diag states (amplitude patterns)...Figure 8.5 A schematic representation of OAM generation in PCs.Figure 8.6 The experimental verification of the proposed PC. (a) Experimenta...Figure 8.7 Analysis of the radiated EM wave from UCAs. (a) Configuration of ...Figure 8.8 The extracted mode amplitudes along with the radial coordinates a...Figure 8.9 Schematic representation of multiple OAM‐beam detections by using...Figure 8.10 Full‐wave simulated far‐field power patterns when the incident w...Figure 8.11 Overview of the relevant parameters in the model: the sum‐freque...Figure 8.12 Comparisons of SF and SH scattering patterns with the nonlinear ...Figure 8.13 Amplitudes and phases of the near‐field longitudinal‐field compo...Figure 8.14 Schematic of the nonlinear spin‐orbital AM coupling induced by S...Figure 8.15 SH conversion efficiencies of chiral clusters illuminated by LCP...Figure 8.16 Multipolar decompositions of the fundamental and SH scattered wa...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 The schematic of OAM waves: (a) Plane spiral OAM (PS–OAM) wave; (...Figure 9.2 Distributions of PS–OAM wave (l = 9): (a) radiation pattern; (b) ...Figure 9.3 Schematic of structured radio beam constructed by PS–OAM modes.Figure 9.4 Normalized beam pattern for 4 PS–OAM modes of l = {1, 2} (solid l...Figure 9.5 Structured radio beams with 8 PS–OAM modes. (a) Normalized beam p...Figure 9.6 The section view of the ring dielectric resonator antenna (DRA)....Figure 9.7 Electric far‐field radiation patterns of the ring DRA. (a) The si...Figure 9.8 (a) An antenna prototype for generation of PS–OAM waves of l = ±...Figure 9.9 Far‐field radiation of ring horn loaded traveling wave circular s...Figure 9.10 The cross‐section of the antenna.Figure 9.11 Simulated patterns at E‐plane with or without RPR.Figure 9.12 Gain and phase distributions of the PS–OAM modes at the H‐plane ...Figure 9.13 Normalized theoretical (solid line) and measured (dash line) pat...Figure 9.14 Structure of the proposed antenna: (a) multi‐mode SIW antenna; (...Figure 9.15 OAM spectra of the different modes.Figure 9.16 Beam scanning schematic provided by the manipulation of eight PS...Figure 9.17 Configuration of the partial slotted curved waveguide leaky‐wave...Figure 9.18 The directivities and phase distributions within the mainlobe fo...Figure 9.19 The OAM spectrum analysis of the simulated results (bar graph) a...Figure 9.20 Beam steering of structured radio beam for radar detection.Figure 9.21 Spatial spectrum of the imaging system under different topologic...Figure 9.22 System configuration of the MIMO system. d _mn : the propagation di...Figure 9.23 Capacity gain over SISO system for existing MIMO system, PS–OAM–...Figure 9.24 The BER curves and the receiving constellations with EVM.Figure 9.25 The architecture of the SFDM system based on OAM mode group.Figure 9.26 SER vs SNR with different number of receivers N, given the numbe...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 OAM multiplexing system using coaxial UCAs and DFT/IDFT beamform...Figure 10.2 Coaxial UCA configuration; (a) Tx UCA; (b) Rx UCA; (c) Tx/Rx UCA...Figure 10.3 Various types of coaxial UCA configurations: (a) single‐polarize...Figure 10.4 Examples of circular‐polarized MSAs: (a) LHCP; (b) RHCP.Figure 10.5 Achievable rates of different configurations versus (a) transmis...Figure 10.6 Antenna rotation: (a) mth Tx antenna; (b) nth Rx antenna.Figure 10.7 Optimal radius versus transmission distance for (a) N = 2, (b) N Figure 10.8 Schematic of a 180° hybrid coupler: (a) symbol; (b) circuit conf...Figure 10.9 Third‐order Butler matrix: (a) circuit configuration; (b) phase ...Figure 10.10 Fourth-order Butler matrix: (a) circuit configuration; (b) phas...Figure 10.11 Reflection and coupling of the fourth-order Butler matrix: (a) ...Figure 10.12 Transmission amplitude of the fourth-order Butler matrix: (a) I...Figure 10.13 Transmission phase of the fourth-order Butler matrix: (a) In 1;...Figure 10.14 Achievable rate characteristics versus (a) misalignment, Δx; (b...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Illustration of path loss, shadowing, and multipath versus propa...Figure 11.2 MIMO system.Figure 11.3 Architecture of the PASR‐based OAM multiplexing system. RA: rece...Figure 11.4 The measured (a) inter‐channel interference; (b) constellations;...Figure 11.5 Architecture of (a) the CAL‐based OAM multiplexing system and (b...Figure 11.6 A 4 × 4 PSOAM‐based MIMO system [7].Figure 11.7 Eigenvalues of H of the PSOAM‐based and conventional MIMO system...Figure 11.8 Equivalent MIMO systems of the PSOAM‐based MIMO systems with ΔL ...Figure 11.9 Simulated and measured BER of the PSOAM‐based and conventional M...Figure 11.10 Architecture of the system combining the OAM multiplexing with ...Figure 11.11 Measurement setup of the multiplexing system where each transmi...Figure 11.12 Measured BERs as functions of SNR of different cases: (a) BERs ...Figure 11.13 Constellations of received 1 Gbaud 16‐QAM signals for channel l...Figure 11.14 (a) Draft and (b) practical measurement setups to the analysis ...Figure 11.15 Intensity, phase, and OAM spectrum of the LoS OAM wave, the ref...Figure 11.16 Normalized received power of the signal for different l ₁ (i.e. Figure 11.17 Simulation results of the intra‐channel interference for OAM wa...Figure 11.18 Measured BER and SNR as functions of the reflector distance for...Figure 11.19 Received power from different OAM channels (i.e. l ₂ = ±1, ±3) a...Figure 11.20 Measured BER as functions of the reflector distance for (a) l ₂ ...Figure 11.21 Measured BERs as functions of SNR at different reflector distan...Figure 11.22 Measurement setup to investigate the frequency‐selective OAM ch...Figure 11.23 Impulse response of OAM channels when l = 0, +1, and +3 [28]....Figure 11.24 EVM and BER of the QPSK signal as a function of baud rate when Figure 11.25 Spectra of the OAM channels l = 0, +1, and +3 when 2 Gbaud QPSK...Figure 11.26 Measured (a) EVM and (b) BER of three scenarios (i.e. a single ...Figure 11.27 Measured (a) EVM and (b) BER of three scenarios (i.e. a single ...Figure 11.28 Measurement configurations in a lecture room [30].Figure 11.29 Measurement configurations in a corridor [30].Figure 11.30 An illustration of the reverberation chamber.Figure 11.31 Measurement setup of the OAM‐based 2 × 2 MIMO system in the RC ...Figure 11.32 Ergodic capacities of the 2 × 2 OAM‐based and nonOAM MIMO syste...Figure 11.33 Uncoded BER performances of the 2 × 2 OAM‐based and nonOAM MIMO...Figure 11.34 Correlation magnitudes between the transmitted signals of the 2...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Concept of a building‐to‐building communications employing OAM m...Figure 12.2 Conceptual schematic of a communication system employing OAM mul...Figure 12.3 Potential challenges for an OAM multiplexing FSO communication l...Figure 12.4 (a) Simulation model of the free‐space OAM multiplexing communic...Figure 12.5 Simulation results. (a) Simulated spot size (diameter) of differ...Figure 12.6 (a) Two different cases of alignment between the transmitter and...Figure 12.7 (a, b) Simulated power distribution among different OAM modes as...Figure 12.8 (a) A rotating phase plate is used as an atmospheric turbulence ...Figure 12.9 Concept of obstruction in an OAM communication link.Figure 12.10 Concept of (a) generation of an information‐carrying OAM beam w...Figure 12.11 Experimental results of 16‐QAM signals over pol‐muxed OAM beams...Figure 12.12 (a1–a3) Three steps to produce 24 multiplexed OAM beams using t...Figure 12.13 (a) The intensity profiles and phase fronts of LG beams with di...Figure 12.14 Experimental setup of a 120‐m OAM‐multiplexed link on a buildin...Figure 12.15 (a) Sketch of the experimental setup; (b–e) examples of superpo...Figure 12.16 Different crosstalk mitigation approaches in an OAM‐multiplexed...Figure 12.17 Concept of using the AO to mitigate turbulence‐induced crosstal...Figure 12.18 Concept of AO turbulence mitigation using a Gaussian beam as a ...Figure 12.19 Far‐field intensity images of the Gaussian probe beam and OAM b...Figure 12.20 The performance of AO mitigation in an OAM‐multiplexed FSO comm...Figure 12.21 Concept of OAM‐based quantum data encoding. Within each symbol ...Figure 12.22 The performance of AO mitigation in OAM‐based quantum link (Upp...Figure 12.23 The performance of AO mitigation in an OAM‐encoded, bidirection...Figure 12.24 Concept of the phase correction for a distorted OAM beam using ...Figure 12.25 (a) Far‐field intensity profiles for various OAM beams (OAM ℓ...Figure 12.26 Concept of the LG mode decomposition and the complex OAM spectr...Figure 12.27 (a) The concept of the turbulence compensation utilizing invers...Figure 12.28 (a1–a2) The normalized transmission intensity matrices and (b) ...Figure 12.29 (a) Concept diagram of transmitting each data channel on a comb...Figure 12.30 Displacement‐induced channel crosstalk under various horizontal...Figure 12.31 The concept of using MIMO DSP equalization for crosstalk mitiga...Figure 12.32 Recovered constellations of 20 Gbit/s QPSK signal in each of th...Figure 12.33 The concept of receiving signal and pilot tone using a free spa...Figure 12.34 Concept of mixing OAM pilot tones and signal beams to achieve t...Figure 12.35 EVM performance for two multiplexed OAM channels under differen...Figure 12.36 Challenges of different scenarios in OAM‐multiplexed FSO airbor...Figure 12.37 (a) Scheme of displacement tracking using Gaussian/OAM beam‐bas...Figure 12.38 Concept of a free-space optical communication link between an u...Figure 12.39 (a) Schematic diagram of different locations where the UAV hove...Figure 12.40 Concept of an OAM‐multiplexed FSO link between a ground transmi...Figure 12.41 (a) Recovered QPSK constellations at transmitted power of 10 dB...Figure 12.42 Challenges of different scenarios in underwater FSO communicati...Figure 12.43 (a) Intensity profiles of OAM beams under various channel condi...Figure 12.44 Experimental setup of a 40‐Gbit/s OAM multiplexed underwater li...Figure 12.45 (a) Concept of on–off‐keying (OOK) modulation. Eye diagram for...Figure 12.46 Measured BER curves of OAM channel ℓ = +1 and ℓ = +...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Electric and magnetic field magnitudes normalized to the maximum...Figure 13.2 General concept of chirality characterization of nanoparticles b...Figure 13.3 Helicity density at the z = 0 plane of an ARPB propagating along...Figure 13.4 Schematic of photoinduced force microscopy [6].Figure 13.5 An example of setup for generation of a large magnetic to electr...Figure 13.6 Local magnetic field enhancement F _H (first column of the plot) a...Figure 13.7 Left: Schematic of the PiFM that is used in our experiment; midd...Figure 13.8 (a) Measured force map of the Si truncated cone under APB illumi...Figure 13.9 (a) Simplified model of a photoinduced force microscope, where t...Figure 13.10 Differential force exerted on the tip of the probe in a PiFM wh...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Phase and intensity profiles of Laguerre–Gauss modes. (a) Helica...Figure 14.2 Illustration of spontaneous parametric downconversion in a nonli...Figure 14.3 Detection matrix showing the correlation among different OAM sta...Figure 14.4 Generation of the helical beam with transmissive optics. (a) Pro...Figure 14.5 Generation and detection of structured light with SLMs. (a) Heli...Figure 14.6 Concept of alignment‐free QKD. (a) Alice and Bob (depicted as tw...Figure 14.7 Experimental high‐dimensional QKD. (a) Setup used by Bouchard et...Figure 14.8 Quantum walk in the spin–orbit space. (a) Schematic representati...Figure 14.9 Quantum walk on a cyclic graph. (a) Intensity plot of an optical...Figure 14.10 Quantum walk on a square lattice. (a) Position eigenstates are ...Figure 14.11 Bulk measurement of topological invariants. (a) Examples of cur...