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COVID-19 and the consequences of free behavior and threats to freedom have stimulated the interest of psychological reactance researchers. Health practices of handwashing, physical distancing, and mask-wearing are normative appeals that have reactance potential. Findings from Kang et al. (2021) suggest that normative appeals to health practices influenced threat to freedom but without negative cognitions resulting from an understanding of the consequences of COVID-19. Injunctive normative appeals than descriptive normative appeals were more likely to be perceived as threats to free behavior. Krpan and Dolan (2021) note that COVID-19 restrictive messages, though resulting in intention toward reactance, did not lead to behavioral reactance. Mask reluctance wearing emerging from reactance has implications for social distancing observance and propensity toward anti-vaccination (Taylor & Asmundson, 2021). Additionally, perceived threats devalue evaluation of protective behaviors and the pursuit of idiosyncratic goals (Reiss et al., 2020). Agency assignment of cause (i.e., human or virus as cause of COVID-19 virus) has implications for evoking reactance, including negative cognition, source derogation and anger, and having implications for health risk policies (Ma & Miller, 2021). Some other COVID-19 and reactance studies include: Scheid, Lupien, Ford, West, Carfora and Catellani (2021), De La Fuente et al. (2021), Kokkoris (2020), and Kirk and Rifkin (2020).

Table 2.1 summarizes research that focuses on psychological reactance as a state condition (i.e., influenced by the situation).

Table 2.1 Research on Situational Psychological Reactance.

Author	Comments
Brehm (1966)	Psychological reactance theory formally presented in this monograph.
Brehm and Cole (1966)	Explored the effects of a favour on reactance arousal. This study found that the importance participants place on the behavioral freedom influences the arousal and magnitude of reactance.
Brehm and Sensenig (1966)	Examined social influence as a function of implied or attempted threat to freedom. Results from this study showed that when a person’s freedom to choice is usurped, the individual will experience psychological reactance and thus reject the influence.
Hammock and Brehm (1966)	Explored the attractiveness of alternatives when freedom is reduced or eliminated. The two experiments yielded the results that a choice alternative which is eliminated by another person will tend to become more attractive, and a choice alternative forced by another person will tend to become less attractive.
Kornberg et al. (1970)	Proposed how psychological reactance can provide a new perspective on understanding political behavior. Results support the application of reactance theory in the study of political behavior.
Linder and Crane (1970)	Analyzed the converging attractiveness of two alternatives as the time for a final decision approaches. This study found that the importance of the decision and the initial attractiveness of the alternative combined to arouse reactance within a short period of time.
Wicklund (1970)	Examined cognitive dissonance theory and reactance theory as theoretical explanations for regret when decision freedom is threatened. The results indicated that under conditions designed specifically to discriminate between the two theories, the prediction from reactance theory was supported while the prediction from dissonance theory was not.
Worchel and Brehm (1970)	Examined the effect of strong threats to a person’s freedom in adopting attitudinal position and the effect of responses to threat as a function of initial agreement or disagreement with the position of the communicator. Findings detected that persons who received freedom threatening communications in agreement with their own position tended to move away from the advocated position, while those in all other conditions tended to move toward the advocated position.
Linder et al. (1971)	Time prior to decision making was manipulated, with results supporting the hypothesis that the shorter the decision time the more likely attractiveness of alternatives converges.
Worchel and Brehm (1971)	Explored direct or implied restoration of freedom. Results from both experiments supported the hypothesis that restoration of freedom reduces the increase in desirability of the alternative which results from a threat to freedom
Berkowitz (1973)	The author reviewed studies that displayed individuals’ unwillingness to aid others and utilized reactance theory.
Andreoli, V.A., Worchel, S. & Folger, R. (1974)	Identified conditions necessary for the arousal of reactance by implication. This study showed that reactance can be aroused by implication (by observing another person’s freedom being threatened) and restored by implication (observing another person’s freedom restored).
Wicklund (1974)	Reviewed studies undertaken on reactance.
Brehm and Mann (1975)	Examined the effect of group conformity pressure on public and private opinions with regard to reactance. Results displayed that if importance of freedom is relatively great to the individual, both private and public compliance decrease, as group attraction increases.
Heilman and Toffler (1976)	Investigated the conditions under which the negative consequences of social influence attempts can be mitigated by freedom-affirming interventions. The results showed that in social situations individual’s concerns about their freedom were interpersonally motivated.
Miller (1976)	Assessed varied intensities of exposure of a persuasive message on attitude change and psychological reactance. This study showed that mere exposure enhances the evaluation of stimuli whereas overexposure dampens positive attitudinal effects.
Snyder and Wicklund (1976)	Examined the effect of exercising prior freedom and reactance. The two experiments of this study showed that when an individual exercises their freedom prior to it being threatened, they do so to prevent the onset of reactance.
Brehm and Weinraub (1977)	Applied the theory of reactance to the attractiveness of goal objects when impeded by barriers. This study found that two-year-old boys were more reactant than two-year-old girls and this was due either to perception of cues and culture.
Carver (1977)	Investigated the role of self-awareness in the perception of threat and resultant reactance. They found that an individual will resist persuasion once a communication is interpreted as coercive and this can happen when the individual has some degree of self awareness.
Stillman (1977)	A review of freedom and reactance by Robert A. Wicklund.
Baer et al. (1980)	Examined the extent that individuals can project autonomy before or after a threat to freedom. This study supported the self-presentational view of reactance, in that reactance effects were confined to participants’ public attitudes, whereas their private attitudes were unchanged. When prior exercise of freedom was public, the reactance process for participants was hindered.
Clee and Wicklund (1980)	A review of psychological reactance and its broad applicability to consumer behavior.
Brehm and Brehm (1981)	Described the theory and research of psychological reactance.
Wright and Brehm (1982)	Critically reviewed reactance and impression management.
Brockner et al. (1983)	Explored the influential properties of self-esteem and self-consciousness when interacted with the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness. Low self-esteem individuals exhibited more reactance effects when they had high self-consciousness and with extended failure they were more likely to show helplessness than individuals with high self esteem.
Seltzer (1983)	Explored the dynamics of paradoxical intervention by stressing external or situational pressures and the link to psychological reactance. Results suggested that the final choice was influenced by reactance although its primary determinants were the student’s self-efficacy and opportunistic ideals.
Mikulincer (1988)	Examined the effects of the internal-external attributional style on affective and performance reactions following different amounts of failure. Results indicated that following exposure to four unsolvable problems, internal attributors exhibited stronger feelings of incompetence and a decrease in performance compared with external attributors.
Nail et al. (1996)	Tested the effectance versus self-presentational view of reactance. The study found that interpersonal processes can affect the expression of reactance and suggests that in some cases, concern for self-presentation may be a necessary condition for measurable reactance effects to occur.
Wicklund (1997)	Reviewed the theory of psychological reactance.
Bushman (1998)	Investigated the effect of informational warning labels on consumerables. Results were consistent with the prediction, although not significant, warning labels may have considerable influence on behavior in situations in which there are clear low-cost behavioral alternatives that are reasonably satisfactory.
Burger (1999)	A review of foot-in-the-door manipulation psychological reactance and other psychological processes.
Beutler et al. (2002)	Review of resistance and reactance in psychotherapy.
Crawford et al. (2002)	Assessed whether anticipated regret impacted one’s decision to react or comply. The results displayed that anticipated regret cannot account for reactance effects. Participants were more likely to perceive greater anticipated regret associated with reactance versus compliance and thus complied.
Silvia (2005)	Explored psychological reactance with focus on individuals and their similarity to persons/communicators who are threatening their freedom. Findings indicated that dissimilarity with the communicator invoked reactance whereas similarity to the communicator increased liking and consequently compliance.
Bushman (2006)	Investigated the effect of informational warning labels on attraction to violence in television viewers of different ages. Across age viewers consider warning labels to be a restriction on their freedom to watch what they want.
Miron and Brehm (2006)	Review of psychological reactance from 1966–2006.
Silvia (2006)	Explored whether threats to freedom can cause disagreement and examined the implications of reactance-based sleeper effects. This study showed that disagreement based on cognitive responses (threat at the start) was more stable over time; however, disagreement based on motivation to restore freedom (threat at the end) was unstable over time and persons agreed with the communicator.
Cho and Sands (2011)	Explored the impact of gain and loss framed messages on perceived threats to freedom. Consistence with previous studies, loss-framed messages aroused greater perceived threats to freedom than gain-framed messages.
Graupmann et al. (2012)	Reaction to threat of freedom of choice was influenced by self-construal. Activation of independent self than interdependent self resulted in more reactance when ingroup members eliminate choice options.
Laurin et al. (2012)	Study aimed to reconciling two seemingly opposing ideas in the literature on rationalization and reactance. Restricted freedom type (definitive and non-definitive) was identified as a factor that predicts which of the two processes, rationalization and reactance, is most likely to occur.
Quick (2012)	Compared Dillard and Shen (2005) measure and the Lindsey (2005) measure of psychological reactance.
Reinhart and Anker (2012)	Utilized reactance and transport theory in understanding perceptions of persuasive public service announcements on organ donation.
Steindl and Jonas (2012)	Perspective taking and culture were important factors in influencing reactance. Adopting the perspective of threatening person reduced reactance.
Wright and Palmer (2012)	Use of persuasive techniques on public to portray specific behavioral patterns illicit reactance tendencies.
Bessarabova et al. (2013)	Reactance is reduced by postscript in situation of high threat message but not in situation of low threat message
Folger et al. (2013)	Examination of behavioral ethics as it pertains to bounded autonomy versus deonance. Ethical tensions may occur between employees and the organization when employees experience dilemma between their duty as an employee and their morality, and rights.
Laurin et al. (2013)	System justification theory and psychological reactance theory were explored in the context of how employees response to new workplace policies. Are the policies perceived as restrictive or do employees justify organizational implementations of policies?
Miller et al. (2013)	Psychological reactance significantly strengthened inoculation effects, leading to an enhanced resistance to persuasion and reduced attitude change.
Quick (2013)	Assessed novelty of message on reactance and findings suggest a negative relationship. The perceived message sensation value distracted target group reducing sense of threat.
Zhang and Sapp (2013)	Assessed the antecedents and consequences of psychological reactance and requests in an instructional context. Consistent with previous studies, relationship distance and perceived request politeness directly impacted reactance, which affected resistance intention.
Ball and Goodboy (2014)	Examined psychological reactance in an instructional setting and freedom restoration behaviors that occur. Forceful language and unclear instructions were antecedents to psychological reactance.
Quick et al. (2015)	After exposure to loss-frame and gain-frame narratives, this study examined the role of happiness and guilt, looking at the implications of Prospect Theory. Results showed that the gain-frame narrative was associated with happiness whereas a loss-frame narrative was associated with guilt. Contrary to previous studies, a negative association was found between guilt and reactance.
Bessarabova et al. (2015)	Explored the impact of guilt appeals on the process of reactance. Guilt appeals acted as a threat to freedom; the guiltier persons felt the more negative the attitude.
Hopp (2015)	Assessed the moderating effects of individual ability in numeracy on the message reactance potential. Individual numeracy ability significantly impacts evaluation of persuasive message with heightened reactance potential.
Sittenthaler et al. (2015)	Explored the construction and empirical evaluation of the Salzburger State Reactance Scale (SSR Scale).
Steindl et al. (2015)	A review of research, developments and findings in the area of psychological reactance since the Miron and Brehm (2006) review, and until 2015.
Quick et al. (2015)	This study examined the role of happiness and guilt in the context of exposure to loss-frame and gain-frame narrative and Prospect Theory. Results supported the idea that the gain-frame narrative was associated with happiness, whereas a loss-frame narrative was associated with guilt.
Wright et al. (2015)	Investigated the implications of Brehm’s theory of motivation intensity in comparison to Brehm’s theory of psychological reactance.
Ball (2016)	Examined the role of psychological reactance in communication, including messages encouraging compliance and perceived autonomy. Autonomy supporting messages provided participants with a sense of control, whereas freedom threatening message may trigger adoption of maladaptive attitudes and behaviors in efforts to restore or preserve independence.
Guéguen (2016)	Assessed compliance to requests when exposed to messages with refusals at the beginnings of persuasive message. Individuals are more likely to comply with requests when aware of their freedom of choice. Perceived threat to freedom increased exhibited reactance, and more resistant to compliance.
Niesta Kayser et al. (2016)	Examined the implications of threats to freedom on approach and avoidance frames. Goal framing communication styles influence the perception of request to change and experience of freedom threats.
Richards and Larsen (2017)	Assessed moderating effect of anger expression tendencies on state reactance in the persuasive health context.
Scherr and Müller (2017)	Clarified the role of social desirability of media influences, perceived persuasive intent, and reactance in the third-person perception framework. Low social desirability of media leads to third-person perception and evoke reactance.
Sukalla et al. (2017)	The theory of planned behavior was combined with persuasion narratives to examine the effects persuasion narratives on individuals’ perception on organ donation.
Debora and Jaidev (2018)	Reviewed empirical studies on consumer psychological reactance, with a focus on research methodologies.
Kim (2019)	Applied psychological reactance to the health issue of e-cigarettes. Reactance likelihood increased as a result of social pressures.
Akhtar et al. (2020)	Investigated the role of psychological reactance and restrictions to physical shopping during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Kokkoris (2020)	Investigated maximizers’ responses to restrictions of choice freedom during lockdown in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Sprengholz et al. (2021)	Investigated the role of psychological reactance in response to proposed mandated vaccine policies in Germany and USA.