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While it is vital to understand moral philosophy and to have good moral character and judgment, that is often not enough to ensure ethical behavior. Ethical issues can be complex and cause even the most principled person to falter. A disciplined approach to ethical decision‐making can help prevent missteps while determining the best outcome for the circumstances.

The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University offers a useful framework for ethical decision‐making in fundraising (Harrington and Varma 2020). First, objectively state the ethical issue at hand. Is there a conflict of interest or the appearance of one? Is there an ethics code violation or a legal compliance concern? Has there been a misappropriation of funds or lack of transparency in reporting? Does the situation present a controversial donor offering tainted funds?

Second, summarize all the relevant information and consider everyone with a stake in the issue – trustees, staff, donors, volunteers, beneficiaries, and the public. Confer with stakeholders, determine if the concerns of some carry more weight than others, and discuss why this might matter. “Good decisions take into account the possible consequences of words and actions on all those potentially affected by a decision” (Josephson 2002, 18).

Third, articulate various alternatives for action and their probable outcomes, assessing each relative to organizational mission and values, plus institutional relationships and one's own personal integrity (Fisher 2000).

Fourth, decide how to act and apply intuition to the decision. If it becomes front page news, can the decision be defended to one's peers or children (Levy 2013)?

Finally, take action, monitor the result, and then reflect on the outcome. Doing this in a consistent manner helps to build ethical muscle, which can be relied upon when the next ethical dilemma arises.

Just because something is legal does not make it ethical. Billionaire Leon Black, former chair and CEO of the private equity firm Apollo Global Management, was forced to step down from his corporate role, as well as his chairmanship of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, when it was reported he had paid convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein $158 million, which saved Black $2 billion via tax avoidance schemes (Pogrebin and Goldstein 2021). While his actions were not illegal, some view them as unethical.