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The following twelve characteristics of good teaching can be grouped into three categories: learning atmosphere, motivation and didactic-methodological know-how. In doing so, we follow a suggestion by Wolfgang Beywl2 who contributed significantly to the reception and understanding of John Hattie in the German-speaking areas by presenting an overview and assessment of the positions developed by the three referenced authors in the introduction of this chapter.

The individual characteristics are primarily taken from the publications Visible learning for teachers by John Hattie3, Unterrichtsqualität und Lehrerprofessionalität (The quality of teaching and teacher professionalism) by Andreas Helmke4 and Was ist guter Unterricht? (What constitutes good teaching?) by Hilbert Meyer5. Each characteristic is thereby referenced with only a few key words which cannot be fully explained in this first chapter and which do not do justice to the nuanced sophistication with which they are presented in the original publications. In spite of the simplified short explanations, the aggregate list of the twelve characteristics provides a good orientation for classroom practice and design. The resultant inferred suggestions nevertheless yield useful instructions and means of action for practical application. A more intensive study from our perspective is meaningful, especially the very broad and particularly relevant themes of successful teaching. Hence the attached bibliographic references with certain characteristics. In our experience, a serious and sustained discussion with teaching practitioners about the characteristics of good teaching has produced extremely positive effects on school management – and with it, occupational satisfaction and the love for the teaching profession as well.

For better orientation, the twelve referenced characteristics of good teaching are listed in the table below and allocated to the superordinate topic areas. Furthermore, the table contains referenced to the comments on learning goals and competences.

Since we strive for the greatest possible transparency in terms of the origin of thoughts, ideas, and findings, we attribute the important contributions of individual authors and findings from Hattie’s meta-analyses in each of the twelve characteristics. However, we reference the authors only when, in our estimation, they can make a specific contribution to a characteristic which justifies their special highlighting.

1 Teaching climate

Helmke and Meyer talk about a climate conducive to learning. By this, they mean that a classroom climate of mutual respect is important, that rules are reliably followed, that all parties assume responsibility, and that a sense of justice and a willingness to help others are shared. The conversational tone must be friendly, the atmosphere characterized by cordiality and warmth, with room for laughter and humor. Moreover, there should be as many learning situations as possible that are not connected to performance assessment, and only as many achievement-oriented situations as necessary (see chapter 8). Concerning the pace of work, a relaxed atmosphere should be created: tolerance for slowness and a reasonable waiting time for student responses are considered important. Hattie equates the characteristics of a learning-conducive climate in the classroom with a high-effect strength in the areas of teacher-student relations, class cohesiveness, and low levels of fear. Hattie particularly emphasizes that an optimal classroom climate is characterized by an atmosphere of trust which tolerates mistakes as part of the learning process.

2 Classroom management

Conducting a class – or more specifically, classroom management – is often considered the most deciding factor of a successful teaching environment, not only by teachers, but also school management and educational authorities. Helmke considers it a necessary precondition for successful and ambitious teaching. Modern classroom management is based on the rules determined by teacher and students. It is imperative to address disruptions preventively with strategies of steering attention (that is, through instructions and organizational measures to control attention). When disruptions occur, they should be addressed discreetly and in a non-dramatic and time-saving fashion. Meyer does not include classroom management among the ten most important characteristics of good teaching, but his demands for clear structuring of teaching, a learning-conducive climate, and meaningful communication, comprise essential elements of classroom management. Efficient classroom management has a high impact on successful learning processes in Hattie’s meta-analysis. Because classroom management is generally considered important, but not always easy, the following example should shed some light on some possibilities for further in-depth study from among the great number of publications about the topic of classroom management: Disruptions in the classroom (Störungen in der Schulklasse) by Hans-Peter Nolting6 which further builds on the learning theory-based classic study by Jacob Kounin7 is a guideline to classroom management which goes far beyond Kounin’s classic study and aims at optimal behavior control and guidance and offers easily applicable and trainable suggestions for classroom management. Discipline and self-discipline in the school (Disziplin und Selbstdisziplin in der Schule) by Jürg Rüedi8 is rather deep psychology-oriented and emphasizes the relationship between teacher and students in classroom management. In our view, it is well worthwhile that not only prospective teachers but all teachers who would like to optimize their classroom management study this publication.

3 Real learning time

That total classroom time should entail the highest possible percentage of real learning is an essential characteristic of good teaching according to Meyer. This can be accomplished through good time management, punctuality, and most of all by deferring questions of an organizational nature outside of the defined, actual teaching time. The proportion of genuine learning time to total classroom time is important for Helmke as well, though he subsumes this point under efficient classroom management. In any case, it is certainly helpful to question how much time is lost in teaching with activities that cannot be attributed to learning.

4 Motivation

For Helmke, a diverse motivation is an important quality characteristic of teaching. Three different learning-relevant groups of motives should be considered. For one, it is important to consider the intrinsic learning motivation of students which manifests itself in their objective interests and activity interests. For another, the possibilities of extrinsic motivation can be utilized: the importance and usefulness of the learning material should be explained, the link to the living world of the students established, and the curiosity and achievement motivation should be encouraged. Ultimately, teacher engagement and the joy of the subject matter and teaching are transferred via the process of modelling to motivate students.

It is extraordinarily interesting that, according to Hattie’s research, the students’ self-assessment of their own performance level has by far the strongest influence on student success. There is evidently a relationship between the students’ motivation to deal with school-related content and Hattie’s outstanding findings. In light of the fact that Albert Bandura’s social cognitive learning theories and the complementary publications by Matthias Jerusalem (which focus more strongly on the German-speaking areas) resulted in similar conclusions, one has to agree that teaching should be conducted in a manner that strengthens self-assessment, self-efficacy – or most importantly – the self-confidence of the students. For a more in-depth study of these relationships, we refer to the classic study by Albert Bandura, Self-efficacy,9 and the publication for pedagogy (Zeitschrift für Pädagogik) which devoted a special edition to just this topic, which, among other things, introduced a differentiated review of Matthias Jerusalem’s and Ralf Schwarzer’s concept of self-efficacy and discusses the concept with a permanent reference to the school.10

5 Performance expectation

There is a consensus in the educational science community that high performance expectations and an optimistic estimation of goal attainment by parents as well as teachers are of greatest importance for the learning success of children and adolescents. It is therefore not surprising that Hattie, Helmke, and Meyer all emphasize the importance of challenging and transparent performance expectations. The expectations should be oriented along guidelines or educational standards and attained by a teaching curriculum that corresponds to students’ capacity for learning. In doing so, they should not only strive for professional competences but also interdisciplinary competences. Without education-oriented feedback about the educational progress, performance expectations are only of limited benefit (see chapter 8). Additionally, Helmke emphasizes that the focus must be on the demonstrable and lasting effect of teaching, which renders regular monitoring of learning progress with all diagnostic tools and means of assessment indispensable. This must occur, however, without neutralizing the element of “only as many performance situations as necessary” from the characteristic learning atmosphere. Finally, it remains to be said that Hattie’s meta-analysis leads to the same result, but with the additional factor of teacher engagement and enthusiasm for the subject as an effective element of performance expectation as well as motivation. Challenging performance expectations should not lead to excessive demands for students. In our view, this problem is well recognized in the schools, and the risk is rather that the students’ high performance ability is underestimated and that they are not confronted with assignments that reflect an adequate appreciation of their possibilities.

6 Clarity in content and structure

There is a broad consensus among the three authors that clarity is an extremely important and effective characteristic of good teaching. For one, it concerns clearly defined goals and content (see chapter 9). Furthermore, the work method should be plausible and with a transparent organization of the learning process. The task assignments must be clear and understandable and should include possible learning aids with organizing clues (preview, summary, advance organizer etc., see chapter 2, p. 59). Ultimately, clarity and obligation are also important in securing results. An additional aspect of clarity concerns language. It should be appropriate in terms of vocabulary and technical terminology and factually correct. Moreover, conciseness of language, clear diction, adequate rhetoric, correct grammar, straightforward sentences and acoustic comprehensibility are also important.

7 “Rhythmization” and articulations

Hattie has above all pointed out that rhythmized practicing has a significantly higher effect than cumulative, bundled practicing. Helmke and Meyer do not postulate a special characteristic of rhythmized teaching and for its articulation (articulation = chronological structuring of teaching in phases). However, both are included in other characteristics, such as in the preceding characteristic clarity: the demand for alternating activities in the classroom which enhance learner concentration and absorption capacity and prevents monotony and offers variation. This remains uncontested. The beginning and end of a class session should be viewed especially carefully (see p. 36). Aside from the rather experience-oriented articulation, as proposed by Grell and Grell,11 which allows for a meaningful sequence for almost any classroom session, there are also scientifically elaborated concepts, such as the one by Hans Aebli,12 which is referenced under the acronym PADUA and sketches out a sequence for entire lesson units (see p. 37). Also useful is the AVIVA model13, which features five phases of good teaching as well and was developed primarily for older students up to vocational school age.

8 Variety of offerings and diversity of methods

The variety of subject offerings and the diversity of methods should be understood as a supplement to the previously discussed characteristics. Meyer and Helmke are in favor of a student oriented, subject and learning objective-appropriate variation of teaching methods and social forms and for a balanced combination of major methodological forms. A teacher’s vast repertoire of staging techniques and variety of approaches are to be welcomed, but all too many variations appear to be equally problematic as a didactic “monoculture”. From Hattie’s point of view it remains to be added that the concept of reciprocal learning shows a particularly high learning effect and, concurring with Meyer, that metacognitive strategies and learning techniques – consideration of the meta level of learning – have an additional positive effect (see chapters 3 and 4).

9 Student orientation and support

The characteristic of student orientation and support is considered effective by Helmke as well as Hattie. The point is that instructors should not only be contact persons for technical-curricular issues but also personal contact partners, and that teachers take the learners and their statements and questions seriously. Ideally, students are polled about the teaching process and participate within reason in decisions concerning the structure and content of instruction. In our view, student feedback is part of a modern culture of reflection on teaching (see chapter 10, 309 f.).

10 Heterogeneity and individual promotion

Central to this characteristic is a sensitive approach with heterogeneous learning requirements and student personalities with special care that differences in social, linguistic, and cultural areas are recognized and respected. To adequately respond to heterogeneity, care must be taken to adjust the instructional speed and degree of difficulty to the respective requirements of individual students or entire student groups. This requires individual learning assessments and coordinated promotion plans, an internal differentiation of instruction, variation of subject, generic goals, and contents, particularly a furthering of children and adolescents from groups at risk. Referencing this characteristic, Helmke talks about fit and Meyer refers to individualization. The effects of individual furthering in Hattie’s study are only referenced as part of other effects.

11 Consolidation and intelligent practicing

As a memory psychological condition for work with demanding assignments, it is necessary to practice and master basic skills to the point of automaticity. On the other hand, it is also necessary to include in the instructional process a multitude of assignments that require not just mechanical but “intelligent” practice. Tailor-made practice assignments, targeted assistance, good framework conditions, and a high variation of practice opportunities are part of this characteristic, which is considered equally important by all three authors. Instructional methodology is of central importance for the formulation of learning-conducive assignments in all school subjects. Finally, Hattie emphasizes that practicing increases the possibility of not just mastering a subject but also the fluency in a subject area.

12 Self-action and learning assignments

With reference to the well-known teaching researcher Franz Weinert, Helmke sums up this characteristic in a nutshell: good teaching is teaching in which more is learned than taught. Therefore, educational offerings for autonomous, self-reliant learning must be made available; all students need diverse speaking and learning opportunities where latitude rather than narrow margins and authentic questions instead of pseudo-questions should be the guiding principles. The school pedagogues Jochen and Monika Grell provide in the publication Unterrichtsrezepte14 (educational recipes) with the chapter Das Rezept Lernaufgabe (the learning taste recipe) an appropriate, practice-oriented deeper analysis of these claims. Ultimately, homework assignments are also suitable to further independent work.

Side note: Learning objectives and competences

Learning objectives

The learning objective-oriented or curricular didactics, developed by Christine Möller, has been of great importance for teacher education for four decades and strongly influences instructional practice. It demands that establishing educational goals, selecting objectives and, particularly, formulating learning objectives must play a key role in lesson planning.

According to the learning objective-oriented didactics15, correctly defined goals are essential if students’ learning is to be led into the prescribed direction of the school’s educational mission and educational mandate. The goals must be simultaneously challenging and attainable. They should be justified and transparent for all those involved in the educational enterprise. However, balanced goal settings may not just limit themselves to the attainment of certain standards in school subjects but must also concern interdisciplinary, personal, and social aspects. Only when the sharing of learning strategies, the promotion of self-efficacy or the encouragement for collaboration are formulated as objectives can we expect that instructional efforts indeed follow in a common systematic pursuit of that goal. A learning objective-oriented didactics that demands special observation of learning objectives rejects randomness, arbitrariness, and aimlessness in the classroom.

The demands of curricular didactics are by no means an isolated case. Other general didactic theories emphasize the central importance of learning objectives as well. Of particular note is Wolfgang Klafki. With his classic postulate of categorical training (Postulat der kategorialen Bildung)16 he took the view that good teaching must distinguish itself by a balanced combination of materialistic (content-related) and formal goals (related to the development of the person). In summary, it can be said that the focus on the setting and formulating of learning objectives follows a long pedagogical tradition, which has remained current up to the present, with a strong influence on teacher education, and which retains a prominent place among the tools for lesson planning (see chapter 9).

Competences

At the beginning of the 21 st century, the concept of learning objectives retreated somewhat into the background of the school education discussions at the expense of the increasingly more dominant concepts of competence. In the course of large empirical school achievement studies and in conjunction with standardization efforts, the concept of competence became a trend term and slogan for education reform and education policy.

Competence is an ambiguous term with a complex history. The term was originally used in linguistics by Noam Chomsky in reference to the knowledge which a speaker or listener has of his or her language. In contrast, Chomsky described the actualization of this knowledge in the act of speaking as performance, which finally rendered more apparent to him what is only latently present in competence. For Heinrich Roth, who introduced the concept of competence into pedagogy, subject competence, self-competence and social competence only conditionally include a performance aspect; however, they form the pre-conditions for self-determination, which is the central educational objective for Roth.

In the last twenty years, a concept of competence has prevailed and established itself in educational science which clearly includes this performance aspect and is mostly used in references to formulations by Franz E. Weinert and Eckhard Klieme. Weinert describes competence as “an individual’s inherently available or learnable cognitive capabilities and skills to solve certain problems, as well as the related motivational, volitional and social readiness and skills to apply problem solutions in variable situations successfully and responsibly.”17 Klieme considers competence in relation to educational standards and concludes “that educational standards – other than curricula and framework guidelines – do not fall back on syllabi and lists of learning content to substantiate educational objectives. Competences reflect the fundamental action requirements to which students are exposed in this domain.”18 These definitions clearly expose the trajectory of the current competence movement: it is a question of “dead knowledge” and “how one can get others (or oneself) to effectively apply concepts, ideas, or indeed knowledge, and put them into practical action …”19.

In summary, it can be said that the term competence currently references what Chomsky described as performance in linguistics, namely the ability to master situationally-influenced challenges, or, in other words, to perform actions that are visible and measurable. Thus, the concept of competence complies with the current educational reform whereby the performance of the school is not directed through input, “but – just as in a business enterprise – is to be measured using the actual realized learning gains, the output.”20