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Chapter 1

Rock Climbing 101

Dave Nettle Collection

W hat is traditional (“trad”) climbing, and what is its relationship to sport climbing? To free climbing? To aid climbing? Where do leading and top-roping fit into the picture? Aspiring rock climbers currently entering the sport frequently ask these questions. To learn the answers, you can begin by examining roles within the typical climbing partnership, as well as by studying fundamental ascent systems and methods. But the paradigm doesn’t really come into focus without some sort of historical context. By exploring the recent evolution of the roped rock-climbing experience, you gain a general understanding of the most common techniques and styles used today.

ROLES & SYSTEMS

Leading is a roped ascent system with two people fulfilling roles as leader and belayer and, sometimes, follower. In another system known as top-roping, the partnership involves a climber and belayer.

Top-Roping

If you are the belayed climber in this system, a rope redirected through an anchor above protects you from a serious fall. While your anchored belayer might be situated above you if you are following a route, the belayer is more commonly below you via a yo-yo or “slingshot” arrangement. (See illustrations.)

An anchor is established atop a climb—no longer than half the distance of the length of the rope—for the yo-yo top-rope. A climber either leads the route (see “Leading”) or hikes up to access the summit. If the climber attains the top via hiking, he or she threads the rope halfway through the anchor and tosses the rope strands to the ground.

The belayer of a yo-yo arrangement is situated at the base of the route and threads a bight (or fold) of the rope through his or her belay device. The rope runs up through the anchor and back down to the climber who ties into the other end. The top-rope belayer takes in slack rope as the climber ascends. If the climber falls, the belayer engages the device’s braking mechanism and, if properly belayed, the climber falls only the distance that the rope stretches.

Leading

Leading provides the answer to the age-old nonclimber question “How do they get their ropes up there?” It is the only method for rigging a top-rope on a climb if its summit cannot be attained by walking or scrambling. Here’s how it works: The belayer pays out rope through a belay device at the bottom of the climb as the leader, tied to one end of the rope, moves up the rock. The leader clips the rope into preestablished bolts, or places pieces of protection in cracks and crevices en route to the belay stance, where anchors are either preexisting or created on the spot with the leader’s remaining gear. (See illustrations.)

If the leader falls “on lead,” the belayer engages the braking mechanism, so that the rope is halted at the last piece of protection placed. If the piece is secure, the length of the fall will equal the distance above the last piece of protection placed, multiplied by two, plus rope stretch. For instance, if a fall occurs 7 feet above the leader’s last piece, the approximate length of the fall is 14 feet, plus several inches of rope stretch. (See illustrations.)

A typical lead fall

Once the leader is anchored at the top of the climb, the partners’ roles change. Shifting into belayer mode, the leader provides a top-rope for his or her partner, who then takes on the role of second, or follower (illustration). The second is responsible for cleaning (removing) lead gear. Another option if route criteria allows is for the leader to lower from the anchor, cleaning the route as he or she descends, thereby establishing a yo-yo top-rope.

The second (follower) in action

BASIC ASCENT METHODS

Roped climbers attain summits via one of two ascent methods: free climbing or direct-aid climbing (or sometimes a combination of both). In general, the extent to which climbers rely on equipment best defines each method. When free climbing, equipment is used passively, while aid climbing requires active reliance on gear. Free climbing is the most common ascent method used by the majority of climbers today. Both methods might be used on a single route, most commonly on big walls.

Free Climbing

Free climbing is often confused with free soloing, the act of climbing without a rope and protection. However, free climbing involves roped climbers who wear harnesses and use belay systems and climbing hardware for safety.

Free climbing can occur either on lead or top-rope. Traditionally, free climbing means that you attempt to ascend a route by relying on your own strength, using hand- and footholds for purchase. The rope, protection points, and anchors are used passively as backups, arresting your fall should a mistake occur. But there are modern ascent tactics in which free climbers use equipment for periodic rests between a series of moves (see “Sport Climbing” and Appendix 2).

Most free climbing today involves clean lead ascents, meaning to ascend without the use of pitons (pins) as protection. From the turn of the 20th century through the mid-1960s, pitons were carried up free routes and hammered into cracks for lead protection. But during the early ‘70s, preservation issues related to the increasing rock damage resulting from hammering fueled what is known as the “clean climbing revolution” (see Appendix 1). The elimination of pitons on free climbs was eventually supported by the mass production of alternate, lightweight hardware that climbers could place into cracks and remove with relative ease, all without a hammer. I discuss these devices along with other equipment in Chapter 3.

Pitons are still used occasionally on free routes, particularly on first ascents where leaders lack opportunities to place low-impact hardware. In such cases, a leader will often choose a piton over the more time-consuming and expensive option of placing a bolt.

Direct-Aid Climbing

Direct-aid, a.k.a. artificial climbing (see illustration), is another method of ascent. Aid techniques provide options when the wall is too steep or blank to allow passage via free climbing. In this method, you place a piece of lead protection, clip yourself directly into it, and then literally lean back and rest (hang) on it. To get higher to place your next piece, you ascend a pair of webbing “ladders” called étriers (aiders). Upward progress is slow in aid climbing as pieces cannot be placed more than a body-length apart. On harder routes, you’ll frequently place lead protection that can hold only the weight of your body to get high enough to place a better piece that will hold a potential fall. Used in big wall climbing, aid climbing is sometimes alternated with free climbing on such routes.

Direct-aid climbing

The ascent of the second in aid climbing is supported by the use of mechanical ascenders, known generically as Jumars. These devices slide up the rope but not down it. Piton craft is still common on some big walls. Clean-aid (sans pitons) ascents are also popular, providing significant challenges for climbers up for the task. Severely scarred piton cracks are notoriously difficult to protect with clean-climbing gear.

ALPINE CLIMBING

Alpine climbing (a.k.a. mountaineering) involves climbing on varied terrain in a mountain setting. Snow, ice, and rock are all part of the alpine game. Many alpine routes involve a combination of free climbing and aid climbing, while others are strictly free. The combination of these factors place alpine climbing in a category all its own. The free climbing style employed in alpine climbing is “traditional” in origin (see “Traditional Free Climbing”). An alpine route exclusively involving ice is referred to as ice climbing, which utilizes its own distinct tools and methods of ascent.

Two distinct mountaineering styles based on speed and resource reliance help define how a party or team reaches its intended summit. Expedition-style refers to an ascent involving a large team, massive resources (gear, food, radios, etc.), and long periods of time. Alpine-style refers to a small team (usually no more than three climbers) using little gear and few resources, which allows them to move quickly up and down a mountain.

FREE CLIMBING STYLES

The development of new and diverse styles has marked 20th-century climbing. In Basic Rockcraft, Royal Robbins defines a “style” as the sum of methods and equipment used, plus the degree of adventure involved in the ascent. The emergence of a new climbing style often follows technological advances that allow climbers to accomplish more difficult routes, usually with increased safety.

The development of tools as complex as the nylon rope and the spring-loaded camming device (SLCD), and as simple as the hip belay and sticky rubber have all ushered in tremendous changes. But no development has resulted in changes more momentous than that of the drill and expansion bolt. Several decades after their introduction, the drill and expansion bolt gave rise to the two distinctive free climbing styles dominant at crags today—traditional free climbing and sport climbing.

Existing under the free climbing umbrella, traditional free and sport climbing employ similar principles of ascent and roles but vastly different techniques, tools, skills, and first-ascent methods. (See illustrations 1 and 2). Prior to the widespread development of sport climbing in the 1980s, “traditional” rock climbing remained virtually undefined. As sport climbing’s popularity increased worldwide, descriptive labels became necessary to distinguish the styles. Labels like “adventure climbing,” “classic climbing,” and “gear-leading” were frequently used to describe trad ascents, while “modern free climbing” was used occasionally to describe sport climbing. Today the terms “traditional” and “sport” are well anchored in climbing vernacular.

Traditional Free Climbing

In his June 1999 article in Climbing No. 186, writer Jeff Achey describes the concept of traditional climbing with disarming frankness: “Bolts and hardware don’t grow naturally on cliffs. One of the defining characteristics of trad climbing is that you climb raw rock, and protect your own ass.”¹ Traditional free climbing involves ascending a route from the ground-up, spontaneously placing pieces of removable protection from the rack wherever you deem necessary or as the rock yields. A traditional rack varies depending on the route and the climbing area. It is generally composed of an assortment of standard clean-climbing hardware of varying sizes and brands in combination with runners (a.k.a. slings), quickdraws, and carabiners. The trad climbing rack is discussed at length in Chapter 3.

Though numerous elements are involved in a masterful trad lead, placing secure and solid protection while maintaining mental and physical composure tops the list. Ernest Hemingway’s description of courage as “grace under pressure” best portrays the successful trad leader, who balances the physical demands of climbing with the mental tasks of deciding where and how to place gear. The complexity of placing solid protection involves several factors: knowing when to stop and place a piece; knowing how to rest efficiently; deciding how to use what’s available on the rock and from your rack creatively; understanding the mechanics of each piece of protection; and evaluating gear size, fit, and rock quality. All these factors play a role in the integrity of each lead.

Traditional routes commonly, but not always, follow crack systems. Climbers on traditional routes frequently encounter faces protected by runnered trees, tied-off natural rock protrusions like horns and knobs (chickenheads) and/or clipped bolts placed on lead (hence the term “ground up”). Most trad climbs involve some of each, depending on the morphology of the rock.

Trad climbs vary in length and are measured in terms of pitches. A pitch is the distance between belay stances (anchors) and generally does not exceed the length of the rope. Trad routes can be a single pitch, or a combination of several. Except when a yo-yo system is established on certain single-pitch routes, a partner is required to follow a trad lead to clean protection. If the route continues for more than one pitch, partners will generally swap gear and roles at the top of each. The second now becomes the leader, and the leader becomes the follower. This is the multipitch concept, discussed at length in Chapter 6.

Trad climbs are determined by the natural existing features of the rock; therefore, some routes may involve climbing sections that are either difficult or impossible to protect. Such sections are called runouts and may present themselves at any time between belay anchors. For instance, the security of a hand-sized crack may peter out into an insidious difficult-to-protect groove. Or the pimply features on a knobby face can diminish gradually, taking on the peaches-and-cream complexion of a smooth wall that will not accept protection. Although many traditional routes offer ample opportunity for protection, most trad leaders accept the fact that runouts are often part of the game. They must always be prepared to climb carefully through sections where protection is sparse and potential falls are long and possibly of great consequence.

Though belay anchors on traditional routes are sometimes pre-established with fixed gear such as bolts and pitons, most routes require the establishment of removable protection. The traditional leader is constantly in gear-conservation mode to leave enough equipment to adequately protect the rest of the climb and create a safe belay anchor. The anchor (a.k.a. the belay) is located at the end of each pitch.

Traditional free and sport climbing employ similar principles of ascent and roles but vastly different techniques, tools, and skills.

Communication can be difficult on traditional routes. As the leader, you often climb out of your belayer’s sight and range of hearing. Your belayer’s visual clue to your progress is sometimes limited to the inch-by-inch movement of the rope slithering up and across the rock face, disappearing around a corner or over a bulge.

Sport Climbing

Sport climbs occur on generously bolted routes that are usually established by rap-bolting, the permanent placement of bolts on walls accessed from above via rappeling. Yet some sport routes are established “on lead,” usually with the assistance of direct-aid. Sport climbs are almost always protected exclusively by bolts although some might require the placement of a piece of gear or two. Most involve steep-face climbing on vertical-to-overhanging surfaces.

The abundance of closely placed bolts on sport routes eliminates much of the danger that climbers face in traditional routes, where placing protection is critical, complex, and time-consuming. Because gear responsibilities are fewer when leading a sport route, climbers can focus on continuity and difficulty; they can push their physical and mental limits and risk relatively safe, short falls, usually with minimal consequences.

A standard sport rack typically consists of several quickdraws assembled with specialized lightweight carabiners for clipping bolts and anchors. The equipment theme in sport climbing is “go light.”

Most sport routes require less than half the length of a standard rope, providing leaders the option of a relatively easy retreat, by having the belayer lower them from any bolt. Since they use less than half the rope length, they can, after they reach the top, descend via lowering, establishing a yo-yo top-rope to protect subsequent climbers. Typically, the sport belayer is situated directly below the leader and is close enough for relaxed casual communication.

Sport climbs are often rehearsed at length. The leader “works” a route that he or she was previously unable to climb without falling or hanging on the rope. Working a route entails requesting frequent tension from your belayer so you can rest (hang) between difficult sections. Your eventual goal is to climb the route in one push from bottom to top with no falls or hangs. Known as the red-point, this mastery can take hours, days, or even months to achieve. Other styles of working routes, some of which are employed on traditional, as well as on sport, routes are discussed in Appendix 2.

Although the dangerous elements of traditional free climbing dwarf those of sport climbing, leading sport routes can still be hazardous. Improperly back-clipping bolts can result in the disconnection of the rope from carabiners on quickdraws, and erroneous rope positioning can flip the leader upside down if a fall occurs, making head injuries likely without a helmet. Bolts can be manky (old and deteriorating), compromising their strength and security. In addition, some first-ascent parties fail to space bolts close enough to protect the leader safely at all points on the route, resulting in the rare but occasional runout sport route.

GROWING PAINS

Recent Changes

Like other changes in climbing history, the emergence in the 1980s of sport climbing did not occur overnight. Trends that laid the groundwork for this new method were in the works years before, mostly in Europe but also on a more covert level in the U.S. (see Appendix 3).

Once sport climbing caught on, conspicuous changes occurred rapidly within the sport, as well as in the climbing industry. First, the continuous-move difficulty ceiling was broken as talented, visionary sport pioneers used new tactics to establish routes previously considered unclimbable. New bolted climbing areas developed seemingly overnight, and ratings everywhere shot skyward. Then, a plethora of specialized gear and apparel erupted on the outdoor retail market to arm and outfit sport climbers. Of course, the indoor-climbing concept spread like wildfire, inspiring mainstream interest and an eventual dissolution of climbing’s former daredevil reputation. Eventually, these changes helped to launch the sport of climbing into the largest popularity explosion in its history.

Resistance & Ethical Debates

Changes within the sport were initially met with heated debates by two predominant factions whose voices have accompanied almost every new development in the sport since the early 1900s. The first group was made up of climbers who wholeheartedly embraced new technologies and methods as a way to push the sport’s standards and complete more difficult routes. The second included those who consider themselves purists, seeking aesthetics in a “less is more” adventure. Some of the latter believe that the less they rely on technology, the more valuable their experience will be. Some free climbers of this faction suggest that if climbers can’t succeed on a route without bringing the difficulty level down to their ability, perhaps they should climb something easier. Doug Robinson describes this principle elegantly in A Night on the Ground: A Day in the Open:

Technology is imposed on the land, but technique means conforming to the landscape. They work in opposite directions, one forcing a passage while the other discovers it. The goal of developing technique is to conform to the most improbable landscape by means of the greatest degree of skill and boldness supported by the least equipment.²

A fierce volley of ethical accusations and criticism ensued for several years over establishing routes on rappel, specifically, and sport-climbing tactics in general. Traditionalists were paranoid that the rap-bolters’ enthusiasm might transform their favorite walls into a grid of bolts, attracting swarms of people to otherwise quiet and serene crags. Sport aficionados complained that traditionalist dinosaurs, clinging to outdated methods, prevented the sport from moving forward. Trad climbers accused sport climbers of diminishing the value of achievement within the sport; sport pioneers and their young, talented protégés defended new tactics by thumbing their noses at old-schoolers with every new 5.13 they established. These heated debates were fueled by extreme emotions, probably comparable to the notorious debates in Yosemite Valley regarding the reliance on bolts and the use of fixed ropes on big walls in the 1960s (see Appendix 4).

Around 1988 I recall feeling pressure to choose one style or the other. But with time, tempers softened and the tenor of the debates changed. Both factions slowly came to embrace the “to each his own” aphorism, probably realizing that the choices climbers were making had less to do with ethics than with style. As a result, rapbolted routes and sport-climbing tactics slowly became more and more accepted. Today most climbers tolerate and perhaps even enjoy both styles of free climbing.

Rock Climbing Today

Since the advent of sport climbing, the popularity of all facets of rock climbing has skyrocketed. According to a study conducted by the Outdoor Industry Association (OIA, formerly the Outdoor Recreation Coalition of America) with Leisure Trends and the Gallup organization, in 1998, 1.1 million people in the U.S. were climbing enthusiasts (those owning a harness and rope who went climbing more than six times that year). In 1999, 5.7 million people participated in the sport at least once during the year. In 2001, Gallup and Leisure Trends began tracking climbers who specifically climbed with a rope and harness on natural rock surface outdoors. Participation in this category of climbing (which excludes bouldering and indoor climbing) remained consistent between 2001 and 2005 at around 5 million participants. While virtually no scientific studies were conducted prior to these dates for comparison purposes, longtime climbers know that these figures reflect a tremendous increase.

Now that you have a clear picture of what modern roped rock climbing looks like today, you’re ready to take a closer look at traditional lead climbing—its unique joys and challenges. In delving into the psyche of the traditional leader, Chapter 2 examines trad leading’s relationship to adventure, psychology, and personal ambition.