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1. Cf. C. B. Fawcett, Frontiers (Oxford, 1918), pp. 50 ff. Also, Lord Curzon, Frontiers (Oxford, 1908), pp. 13 ff.

2. The three most important of these routes were: 1, from the headwaters of the St. John to a branch of the Chaudière; 2, from the head of the Kennebec to the Chaudière proper (the route of Col. Arnold in 1775); and 3, from a branch of the Connecticut to a stream entering Lake Memphremagog, and so down the St. Francis. Cf. A. B Hulbert, Portage Paths; Cleveland, 1903. Many of the early maps also show the more important portages and carrying-places.

3. W. M. Davis, The Physical Geography of Southern New England (New York, 1896), pp. 26 ff.

4. E. C. Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York, 1911), p. 354.

5. V. S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the U. S., 1607-1860 (Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1916), pp. 88 ff.

6. Report on the Water-Power of the U. S.; Census Report, 1885.

7. N. S. Shaler, United States, vol. i, p. 54.

8. E. Huntington, Civilization and Climate (Yale University Press, 1915), p. 22.

9. Dalby Thomas, An historical account of the rise and growth of the W. I. Collonies and of the great advantages they are to England in respect to Trade (London, 1690), pp. 14, 21 f.

10. J. C. Ballagh, “The Land System in the South,” in American Historical Associationciation Report, 1897, p. 109.

11. H. A. Pressey, Water-Powers of the State of Maine; U. S. Geological Survey, 1902, p. 15.

12. J. D. Whitney, The United States (Boston, 1889), p. 176.

13. E. C. Semple, American History and its Geographic Conditions (Boston, 1903), p. 122.

14. The Education of Henry Adams (Boston, 1918), pp. 7 ff.

15. Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, p. 618. Both Miss Semple and A. P. Brigham (Geographic Influences in American History, New York, 1903) lay their main stress on land-forms. For climatic influences, vide W. N. Lacy, “Some Climatic Influences in American History,” in Monthly Weather Review, vol. XXXVI, pp. 169 ff; Huntington, Civilization and Climate, ubi supra; and The Red Man’s Continent (Yale University Press, 1919).

16. For the influence of the sea on subsidiary industries, vide M. Keir, “Some Influences of the Sea upon the Industries of New England,” American Geographical Review, vol. v, pp. 399 ff.

17. Jean Brunhes, La géographie humaine (Paris, 1912), p. 6.

18. In the Middle Ages there was apparently an additional volcanic island, known as Gunnbiörn’s Skerries, between Iceland and Greenland, destroyed by eruption in 1456. R. H. Major, Voyages of the Zeni (Hakluyt Society, 1873), pp. lxxiv ff.

19. Lord Bryce, The Relations of the Advanced and Backward Races of Mankind (Romanes Lecture; Oxford, 1902), p. 40. He contrasts the failure of Christianity with the success of Islam in that regard.

20. Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic (Oxford, 1911), p. 54.

21. F. W. Hodge, Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1911, vol. i, pp. 578, 88, 286; L. Farrand, Basis of American History (New York, 1904), p. 265.

22. G. Friederici, Skalpieren u. änliche Kriegsgebräuche in Amerika (Braunschweig, 1906), p. 106.

23. G. E. Ellis, The Red Man and the White Man in America (Boston, 1882), p. 123.

24. Farrand, Basis, p. 265; Roger Williams, A Key into the Languages of America (Narragansett Club Publications, vol. i), p. 138.

25. Hodge, Handbook, vol. i, p. 572.

26. L. Carr, “The Food of certain American Indians and their Method of preparing it”; Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, New Series, vol. iiv, p. 156.

27. L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society (London, 1877), pp. 71 ff.

28. C. J. Ellis, The Red Man, pp. 207 ff.

29. Hodge, Handbook, vol. i, p. 304.

30. The phratry was a combination of two or more clans, forming a larger exogamous group, and originating, perhaps, in the division of overgrown clans. Although it frequently had the power of veto over the election of clan sachems and chiefs, its functions were social rather than political. In ball games, phratry played against phratry, while at funerals and other ceremonies the organization appears clearly. There was no chief or head.

31. Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York, 1917), p. 152.

32. Morgan, Ancient Society, pp. 112. ff.

33. Williams, Key, p. 74.

34. C. C. Willoughby, “Houses and Gardens of the New England Indians,” American Anthropologist, New Series, vol. viii, p. 126.

35. Rolle, for example, in 1697, followed one from Quebec to Illinois, 2400 miles. Maine Historical Society Collections, vol. v, p. 325.

36. The Bay Path went from Boston to Springfield along the same line, except that it passed through South Framingham instead of Marlborough and Worcester, joining the Connecticut Path at Oxford. See map, in L. B. Chase, “Interpretation of Woodward’s and Saffery’s Map of 1642,” in New England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol. iiv. pp. 155 ff. For other early trails, see the same author’s “Early Indian Trails,” in Worcester Society of Antiquity Collections, vol. XIV. pp. 105 ff., and A. B. Hulbert, Indian Thoroughfares; Cleveland, 1902.

37. Hodge, Handbook, vol. ii, p. 284.

38. D. D. Gookin, “Historical Collections of the Indians in New England, 1674”; Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, Series I, vol. i, p. 151.

39. Wissler, The American Indian, p. 176.

40. Ibid., p. 146.

41. C. C. Willoughby, “Pottery of the New England Indians,” in Putnam Anniversary Volume of Anthropological Essays (New York, 1909), pp. 83 ff.

42. W. B. Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization, Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1884; A. C. Parker, The Constitution of the Five Nations, N. Y. State Museum Bulletin, 1916.

43. See maps, in Wissler, The American Indian, pp. 205, 246, 282.

44. In recent years, evidences of a pre-historic culture in the Penobscot valley, wholly different from that of the Algonquin or Beothuks, have been found. Vide W. K. Moorehead, “Prehistoric Cultures in the State of Maine,” Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Americanists (Washington, 1917), pp. 48 ff. Also his “Red-Paint People,” in American Anthropologist, New Series, vol. XV.

45. L. H. Morgan, The League of the Iroquois; New York, 1901, passim. Though considered a different stock from the Algonquin, they seem to have been identical physically. A. Hrdlicka, Physical Anthropology of the Lenape; Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 62, 1916, p. 127.

46. Gookin, Historical Collection, pp. 145 f. Another writer, in 1629, says: “The greatest Saggamores about us cannot make above three hundred men, and other lesser Saggamores have not above fifteen subjects, and others neere about us but two.” [Higginson] “New England’s Plantation, 1630,” in Mass. Hist. Soc, Coll., Series I, vol. i, p. 122.