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Tourism Shopping
ОглавлениеShopping is a vital part of tourism and tourist spending. Tourism shopping is estimated to account for one-quarter of all tourism revenues. All types of tourism are, in one way or another, a form of consumption. Shopping is itself subject of tourism, too.133 The main purpose of some tourist activities is simply to shop. Doing leisure shopping is not a simple economic activity to meet your functional demands. It is a social activity and cultural event that satisfies your desire for experiences. This may be seen in the light of shopping in general as a means of creating your identity, benefiting from increasing leisure time and living conditions. Shopping is fun and as a consumer, one may even be addicted to shopping, almost just like any kind of drugs and drinking.
Shopping is one of the most common motives for leisure travel in the world. For example this is the case in the US and UK. Leisure consumption is part of the general shopping patterns and types of shoppers that market analysts and retailing follow closely. Tourist shoppers can properly be categorized as active shoppers, price shoppers, leisure shoppers or even social shoppers, going to the mall to show somebody around or meet somebody.
Shopping is different from buying. While buying refers to obtaining a specific item from a seller, shopping also includes servicing and social needs. For example, you might be looking for innovative ideas and products and the leisure experience is more important than the buying act. In general, recreational shoppers often do not know what they want to buy and do not mind distance of travel. They will also tend to make more spontaneous buys, shop more often, spend more time shopping per trip, shop with others, and continue shopping after making a purchase. Socializing is an important part of leisure shopping, shopping with friends and family, especially teenagers and elderly. Recreational shoppers are more inclined to enjoy the complete process of retail consumption, including pleasant and playful surroundings and presentations. As a result, shopping malls are being designed to attract leisure shoppers as a place where they can go and enjoy various activities besides shopping. Shopping is also related to leisure visits to heritage destinations, for example at historic sites, or even sunbathing. In recent years, shopping centers and malls are increasingly seeking to attract leisure shoppers, organizing and designing shopping areas and surroundings accordingly.
Besides consumer experiences at shopping venues, Internet shopping is becoming popular as a recreational activity, too, although still much less important than physical shopping in retail stores. Many feel e-commerce is safer, you can search a wide selection of products, and you can avoid crowds, if you do not like to socialize too much.
Shopping as an added attraction to the destination being visited probably accounts for the majority of tourist shopping. Shopping as the primary reason for taking a trip is an important factor for millions of travelers each year, too. Indeed, the tourism industry offers many specialized international shopping tours in Europe, North America and Asia, for example Christmas shopping in London or Paris, escorted shopping tours in Florence to famous fashion shops, and shopping tours to Mexico for fine crafts and jewelry. The driving forces behind shopping include the selection of merchandise, destination, and price advantages. Themed shopping is an important part of tourism in many places, including festivals and other spectacular events that mix culture, food and maybe ethnicity. Hong Kong is one of the world’s attractive shopping cities, similar to New York and London. Large malls and shopping centers function as magnates of tourism shopping. In connection with multi-millions attractions such as New York’s Museum of Modern Art and Disneyland, shopping is part of the experience, too. Finally, price reductions or simply lower prices in another country motivate many people to travel for shopping, for example from the US to Mexico.
Combining attraction and shopping is the most popular form of tourism shopping. When you travel to other cities, heritage destinations, sunny beaches, ski resorts, or for gambling in Las Vegas there is always an additional shopping element. And the destinations and resorts make sure that shopping potentials are supplied. Between destinations and shopping there is a synergy. Even people who do not normally like to shop (primarily men) participate more in shopping activities while on vacation. On vacations everybody has the time to shop, whereas most people are often too busy at home to shop for fun.
Shopping travels are also motivated by the quest for authenticity, when visiting heritage destinations, crafts destinations, etc. In the end, authenticity is a matter of the meanings that the tourist assigns to their merchandise. Novelty seeking in tourism shopping is another motive for traveling. Some nationalities are very keen shoppers, for example the Japanese, who typically spend more money on each trip than Europeans and Americans, among other things because brands and prestige are important elements to the Japanese, including the custom of gift-giving.
The things that tourists buy may often be categorized as products of fashion, including clothing and shoes, jewelry, leather, watches, cosmetics, fine art, crafts, etc. that may take the form of souvenirs to remind you of the place visited. Shopping venues are placed at destinations, including city centers, heritage sites, beach towns, as well as travel points such as airports. At large airports, for example, virtually all the well-known brands of fashion run duty free shops, just as the international ferry lines do.
Management initiatives are required to attract people. This includes shopping policies, marketing, design of, for example, city quarters to make enjoyable shopping environments, and interior design, as well as infrastructure and regulations. Given the enormous demand for shopping by tourists, many destinations are preparing shopping promotional campaigns and developing shopping policies. Often tourism companies and organizations join hands with town and city shopping centers and trade organizations to promote their destination as an attractive shopping place.
2 OECD (2007). Innovation and Growth in Tourism. Paris: OECD.
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4 OECD (2001). Measuring the Role of Tourism in OECD Economies. UNWTO (2000-2007). The Tourism Satellite Account. Eurostat (2001). European Implementation Manual on Tourism Satellite Accounts.
5 The EU statistics on tourism, for example, are based on travel of minimum 4 overnights: Eurostat (2008). Panorama on Tourism. http://.eurostatec.europa.eu. Nor are many local and national tourism activities and effects included in tourism accounts: Smeral, Egon (2006). ‘Tourism Satellite Accounts: A Critical Assessment’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 45, 92-98. A review of the worldwide problems of implementing satellite accounts at the national level is: Marion Libreros, Antonio Massieu, and Scott Meis (2006). ‘Progress in Tourism Satellite Account Implementation and Development’, Journal of Travel Research, vol. 45, 83-91. The difficulties in economic measuring of tourism are also connected with the conceptual problem of defining a tourist: McCabe, Scott (2005). ‘Who is Tourist? A Critical Review’. Tourist Studies, vol. 5, 85-106.
6 World Travel & Tourism Council (2007). The 2007 Travel & Tourism Economic Research: www.wttc.org.
7 For example, the Danish tourism satellite account is almost fifty percent higher than the traditional account: VisitDenmark (2006). Turismen i Danmark 2000-2004 (Danish Tourism): www.visitdenmark.com.
8 Travel Industry Association of America (TIA)(2007). US Travel Market Overview: www.tia.org. Eurostat. Panorama on Tourism.
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10 The relationship between mass tourism and customized tourism or Fordist versus post-Fordist tourism is dealt with by: Rebecca Torres (2002). ‘Cancun’s Tourism Development from a Fordist Spectrum of Analysis’. Tourist Studies, vol. 2, 87-116.
11 Poon. Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, 32-61.
12 TIA. ‘Travel Insights’, Aug. 2005: www.tia.org. EU/Leidner, Rüdiger (2004). The European Tourism Industry. Bruxelles: EU: http://ec.euroe.eu.
13 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry, 18. EU/Leidner, Rüdiger (2007). The European Tourism Industry in the Enlarged Community. Bruxelles: EU: http://ec.euroe.eu.
14 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry, 15-26.
15 TIA. US Travel Market Overview.
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17 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry, 33-34.
18 www.blueguides.com. www.wikipedia.org. ‘Guide book’.
20 www.fodors.com. www.lonelyplanet.com. www.roughguides.com
21 www.wikipedia.org. ‘Map’.
22 www.michelin.com.
23 www.wikipedia.org. ‘Weather forecasting’.
24 Eurostat. Panorama on Tourism, 31. TIA. U S. Travel Market Overview.
25 EU (2006). Energy and Transport in Figures 2005. US Census Bureau (2007). Statistical Abstracts. Transportation: www.census.gov.
26 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry, 39.
27 www.sncf.com. www.accorhotels.com
28 www.stenalines.com. www.scandlines.com.
29 Drewry (2006). The European Ferry Industry: www.drewry.co.uk.
30 ATAG (2005). The Economic & Social Benefits of Air Transport: www.atag.org.
31 ATW. World Airline Financial Results 2005.
32 www.iata.org.
33 www.staralliance.com. www.oneworld.com. www.skyteam.com.
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36 Dolnicar, Sara and Christian Laesser (2007). ‘Travel Agency Marketing Strategy: Insights from Switzerland’. Journal of Travel Research, vol.46, 133-146.
38 Sabre (2007). Annual Report 2006: www.sabre.com.
39 Information Week. 2.2.2006.
40 EU (2006). ICT and e-Business in the Tourism Industry. Sector Report No. 8/2006: www.unionnetwork.org. www.wikipedia.org. ‘Computer reservation systems’.
41 www.galileo.com. www.travelport.com. www.worldspan.com.
42 www.cendant.com. www.blackstonegroup.com
43 www.cendant.com. www.blackstonegroup.com.
44 www.amadeus.com.
45 Amadeus (2005). Annual Report 2004-2005.
47 www.expedia.com.
49 www.kayak.com.
50 www.youtube.com. www.myspace.com. www.facebook.com.
52 www.expedia.com.
53 www.professionaltravelguide.com.
55 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry, 33-35.
56 Research on the tour operating industry is sparse, see for instance: Dale, Christie (2001). ‘The UK Tour-Operating Industry: A Competitive Analysis’. Journal of Vacation Marketing, vol. 6, 357-367.
57 Kuoni (2006). Annual Report 2005, 56-57: www.kuoni.com.
58 TUI (2006-2007). Annual Reports 2005 and 2006: www.tui.com.
59 www.tuigroup.com. www.thomascookgroup.com.
61 Thomas Cook Group (2006-07). Annual Reports 2006-07: www.thomascookgroup.com.
62 MyTravel (2006-07). Annual Reports 2005-06: www.mytravel.com.
64 www.kuoni.com.
65 www.carlson.com.
68 Cruise Lines International Association (ICCL): www.iccl.org.
69 ICCL (2005). The Cruise Industry, 2004: www.iccl.org.
70 Cruise Copenhagen: www.cruisecopenhagen.com
71 ICCL. The Cruise Industry.
72 Seatrade (2007). Cruise Report 2007: www.seatradeglobal.com.
73 Cruise Line International Association (CLIA) (2006). CLIA 2006. Cruise Market Profile.
74 www.carneval.com. www.royalcaribbean.com. www.starcruises.com. Kworntnik, Robert J. Jr. (2006). ‘Carnival Cruise Lines: Burnishing the Brand’. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, vol. 47, 286-300.
76 www.visa.com. www.mastercard.com.
77 www.visa.com.
80 www.dankort.dk.
81 www.hertz.com. www.hoovers.com.
82 www.avis.com. www.cendant.com. www.avisbudgetgroup.com
83 www.auto.com. Eurazeo (2008). Annual Report 2007: www.eurazeo.com.
85 ReportSURE (2006). Insurance Survey 2006: www.reportsure.com.
86 www.worldaccess.com. www.accessamerica.com
89 www.europäische.at
90 Ottenbacher, Michael C. (2007). ‘Innovation Management in the Hospitality Industry: Different Strategies for Achieving Success’. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, vol. 31, 431-454. Deloitte (2007). Hospitality 2010: www.deloitte.com.
91 EU. Panorama on Tourism, passim.
92 VisitDenmark. Turismen i Danmark 2000-2004 (Tourism in Denmark).
94 InterContinental Hotels Group (2008). Annual Reports 2007: www.ichotelsgroup.com.
95 Accor Hotels (2008). Annual Report 2007: www.accor.com.
96 American Hotel & Lodging Association (AHLA): www.ahla.com.
100 www.wikipedia.org: ‘Cuisine’.
101 www.wikipedia.org: ‘Asian cuisine’, ‘European cuisine’, ‘North American cuisine’, ‘Latin American cuisine’, ‘African cuisine’.
102 www.wikipedia.org: ‘Gastronomy’.
103 www.wttc.org. www.unwto.org.
104 The matter of tourism destination competitiveness is dealt with in several articles, recently by: Mazanec, Josef A., Wöber, Karl, and Zins, Andreas H. (2007). ‘Tourism Destination Competitiveness: From Definition to Explanation?’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 46, 86-95. Govers, Robert, Go, Frank M., and Kumar, Kuldeep (2007). ‘Promoting Tourism Destination Image’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 46, 15-23.
105 UNESCO. Cultural Heritage: www.unesco.org.
106 Heritage tourism is dealt with by: Jamal, Tazan and Kim, Hyounggon (2005). ‘Bridging the Interdisciplinary Divide: Towards and Integrated Framework for Heritage Tourism Research’. Tourist Studies, vol. 5, 55-83. Bonn, Mark A., et al. (2008). ‘Heritage/Cultural Attraction Atmospherics: Creating the Right Environment for the Heritage/Cultural Visitor’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 45, 345-354.
107 US Census Bureau (2007). Statistical Abstracts of the United States. Museums, Historical Sites, and Similar Institutions: www.census.gov.
108 Crafts Council and Arts Council of England & The Arts Council of Wales (2004). Making It in the 21st Century. A Socio-Economic Survey of Crafts Activity in England and Wales, 2002-2003: www.craftassoc.com.
109 Paskaleva-Shapira, Krassimira A. (2007). ‘New Paradigms in City Tourism management: Redefining Destination Promotion’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 46, 108-114.
110 European Travel Commission (2005). City Tourism & Culture. The European Experience. ETC Research Report: www.etccorporate.org.
111 New York City: www.nycvisit.com
112 EU/Leidner. The European Tourism Industry in the Enlarged Community, 7-25.
113 Dolnicar, Sara and Leisch, Friedrich (2003). ‘Winter Tourist Segments in Austria: identifying Stable Vacation Styles using bagged Clustering Techniques’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 41, 281-292. www.wikipedia.org: Tourism.
114 Except for seasonal and regional tourism, cross-combinations of tourism have emerged, too, including for instance sport tourism, see Ritchie, Brent W. and Adair, Daryl (Ed.)(2004). Sport Tourism. Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues. Tonawanda, New York: Channel View Publications.
115 A number of issues focusing on the relationship between sport and tourism are dealt with in: Journal of Sport & Tourism, vol. 11, no. 1, 2006.
116 PWC. Global Entertainment and Outlook, 534-562.
117 Milman, Ady (2001). ‘The Future of the Theme Park and Attraction Industry: A Management Perspective’. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 40, 139-147.
118 Smelsen and Baltes. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, ‘Art’. www.wikipedia.org: ‘Performing Arts’, ‘Arts’.
119 Howkins. The Creative Economy, 102-103.
120 Americans for the arts (2006). Arts & Economic Prosperity III. The Economic Impact of Non-Profit Arts Organizations: www.artusa.org.
121 International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA): www.ifea.com.
122 International Special Events Society (ISES): www.ises.org. IFEA: www.ifea.com.
123 Association of Event Organisers, Contractors and Venues (AEO): www.aeo.org.
124 Special Events Magazine: www.specialevents.com. ISES: www.ises.org.
125 The Convention Industry Council (CIC): www.conventionindustry.org.
126 International Association of Exhibitions and Events (IAEM): www.iaem.org.
127 Reed Exhibitions: www.reedexpo.com. Reed Elsevier: www.reedelsevier.com.
129 www.extraordinary-events.com.
131 www.vok.nl.
132 www.stevekemble.com.
133 Dallan, J. Timothy (2005). Tourism Shopping, Retailing, and Leisure.
