Читать книгу English for Medicine - Joanna Ciecierska - Страница 6
Unit 1. Parts and Contents of the Body
Оглавление| IN THIS UNIT |
| • Body parts• Cavities• Organs• Regions• The skeleton• Teaching/studying gross anatomy |
STARTING OUT
Work in pairs.
Write a list of parts of the body on a piece of paper. Start at the head and finish at the toes. When you are ready swap papers with another pair of students. Where in the body can you find these parts?
When you have finished, identify the following parts of the body in the diagram by writing appropriate numbers in brackets.
abdomen/belly/tummy/stomach (......)
ankle (12)
arm (......)
armpit (......)
back (......)
big toe (......)
buttock (......)
calf (pl. calves) (......)
cheek (......)
chest (......)
chin (......)
cubital fossa (......)
elbow (......)
eyebrow (......)
eyelid (......)
finger (......)
foot (pl. feet) (......)
forearm (......)
forehead (......)
hand (......)
head (......)
heel (......)
hip (......)
knee (......)
leg (......)
lower leg (......)
lip (......)
little finger (......)
little toe (......)
mouth (......)
navel (......)
neck (......)
nose (......)
nostril (......)
palm (......)
popliteal fossa (......)
shin (......)
shoulder (......)
small of the back (......)
thigh (......)
thumb (......)
toe (......)
waist (......)
wrist (......)
| Note:• belly = abdomen (informal)• tummy = a child’s word for stomach or abdomen.• stomach = (1) the body organ where the food is digested; (2) the abdomen• leg = the lower limb, including the foot; part of the lower limb above the foot• lower leg = part of the lower limb, above the foot and below the knee• shin = the bony front part of the leg, between the knee and ankle• shin bone = the tibia |
Reading
Read the text and answer the questions.
The Human Body
The human body consists of the head and neck, the trunk (torso) and four limbs (extremities).
The cranial cavity in the head is filled by the brain. The chest (thorax) lies between the neck and the diaphragm, a sheet of muscle under the ribs. The ribs form a protective cage for the contents of the chest. The walls of the chest are made up of the ribs, the costal cartilages, the intercostal muscles and the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The mediastinum is the central cavity. It is situated between the lungs, in the area between the breastbone (sternum) in front and the spine (vertebral column) behind, and the diaphragm below. It completely separates one side of the thoracic cavity from the other. The heart and major blood vessels leading in and out of it, the trachea, the oesophagus, the thymus gland, lymph nodes and vessels, and the vagus and phrenic nerves are found within the mediastinum. The abdomen lies between the chest and the pelvis. The diaphragm which separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity forms the upper boundary of the abdominal cavity. There is no partition dividing the abdominopelvic cavity, but it is separated into the upper abdominal cavity and the lower pelvic cavity. The abdomen is protected in the back and on the sides by the ribs, the spine and the hips and surrounded by layers of muscle and fat. The abdominal wall is lined by the peritoneum, a serous membrane which encloses, lubricates and supports the organs contained in the cavity. The contents of the abdominal cavity are organs of the digestive and urinary systems. The liver with the gall bladder lies below the diaphragm and to the right. The stomach, the pancreas and the spleen lie to the left. The small and large intestines are located below the stomach. The kidneys are situated in the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column. The right kidney is found under the liver and the left kidney is positioned slightly higher, under the spleen. Portions of the small and large intestines, the bladder, the rectum and the internal reproductive organs are within the pelvis.
1. How many body cavities are described above?
2. Where is each of them situated?
3. How is the thoracic cavity separated into two parts?
4. What are the boundaries of the mediastinum?
5. What organs lie within the mediastinum?
6. What are the upper and lower boundaries of the abdominal cavity?
7. What is the peritoneum?
8. Which organ systems are found in the abdominal cavity?
9. Do both kidneys lie at the same level?
10. Where is the large intestine found?
11. Which of the organs found in the thoracic and abdominal cavities can be successfully transplanted? Any other organs?
Vocabulary
1 Complete these descriptions of two sets of simple exercises by translating the Polish terms for body parts into English.
a. How to exercise at work or between classes
1. Straighten your plecy against your chair, stretch your szyja and then turn your głowa five times clockwise and five times anticlockwise.
2. Bend your łokcie and rotate your barki, five times forward, then five times back.
3. Holding your desk with one dłoń, stand on one noga and bend the other up behind you by your kostka. Pull and hold for 15 seconds. Stretch each noga five times.
4. Stand with your plecy against the wall, then slide down until your uda are horizontal. Hold for 15 seconds. Repeat five times.
5. Holding on to your desk, squat down on your pięty, then straighten up and bend backwards. Repeat five times.
6. Bend back against your chair and expand your klatka piersiowa, with your ręce hanging down. Then relax forward until your głowa is between your kolana. Repeat ten times.
b. How to improve your posture
1. Lift your głowa up, stretching your szyja until your barki drop back.
2. Warm up the mięśnie by gently raising each bark towards the uszy. Then use circular motions to shrug the barki forwards and backwards.
3. Take several long, deep breaths. As you inhale allow your przepona and ribcage to expand. As you exhale squeeze your brzuszek in by pulling your pępek towards the spine.
4. When you walk try to bend only one noga at a time. To strengthen the mięśnie required for this, sit on the floor with your nogi in front of you and walk forwards on your pośladki, keeping the nogi straight.
2 Where do they sit in the body? Make lists of anatomical parts of the body in their locations.
| Location | Part(s) of the body |
| Head | .................................... |
| Neck | .................................... |
| Trunk (torso) | .................................... |
| Upper limb (extremity) | .................................... |
| Lower limb (extremitity) | .................................... |
3 Complete the following sentences about parts of the human body.
1. The neck connects the ....... to the ....... .
2. The term arm may refer to the section of the ....... limb between the ....... and the shoulder, but it is usually used to describe the whole limb.
3. The elbow is the joint at which the arm bends, and the arm and the ....... meet.
4. A ....... is any of the five digits of the foot.
5. The ....... is the short first digit of the hand, but not technically a ....... .
6. The knee is the joint connecting the ....... to the ....... leg.
7. The heel is the part of the foot behind the ....... joint.
8. The ....... is the front of the leg below the knee.
9. The word ....... refers to the narrowing of the trunk of the body.
10. The ....... is a rounded depression in the centre of the belly.
4 Using sentences in exercise 3 as examples, make your own descriptions of some other anatomical parts of the body.
5 Identify the organs described below by choosing appropriate terms from the box. When you have finished, tell which of these organs are tubular or hollow (have a lumen) and which are compact or solid (have no lumen).
| bladder • bronchus (pl. bronchi) • gallbladder • heart • intestine • kidneys • larynx • liver • lungs • oesophagus • pharynx • spleen • stomach • trachea • ureter • urethra |
1. The pharynx is the passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus.
2. .............................. is the organ responsible for voice production.
3. .............................. is the airway that connects the larynx with the bronchi.
4. .............................. is an airway from the trachea into each lung.
5. .............................. are the main organ of respiration.
6. .............................. is an organ that filters old or damaged red blood cells out of the bloodstream and produces some infection-fighting agents.
7. .............................. is one of two organs, in which blood is filtered and waste products and excess fluid are excreted as urine.
8. .............................. is the sac that holds urine produced in the kidneys.
9. .............................. is the fibromuscular tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
10. .............................. is the narrow tube that transports urine from the bladder to be excreted by the body.
11. .............................. is the largest organ in the body.
12. .............................. holds and concentrates bile.
13. .............................. is the muscular tube that passes from the throat to the stomach.
14. .............................. is the organ which receives swallowed food.
15. .............................. is where the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream takes place.
16. .............................. is the organ that pumps blood throughout the body.
6 Paraphrase the definitions from exercise 1 using a verb of naming as in the sentences below.
Example: The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is called the pharynx.
or
The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is known as the pharynx.
or
The passageway that connects the nose and mouth with the trachea and the oesophagus is referred to as the pharynx.
7 What are these organs commonly called? Complete the table choosing the appropriate term from the box. Add a verb of naming and read the sentences out.
| voice box • throat • gullet • windpipe • bowel (gut) • limb • chest • navel • waterworks • finger or toe bone • shoulder blade |
| Technical term of Latin origin(“doctor’s language”) | Commonly called(“patient’s language”) |
| Extremity | |
| Intestine | bowel (gut*) |
| Larynx | |
| Oesophagus | |
| Phalanx | |
| Scapula | |
| Thorax | |
| Trachea | |
| Umbilicus | |
| Urinary tract |
* gut may also refer to the digestive tract
| Note:• In anatomical descriptions, the definite article is used with body parts/organs/structures. |
8 Reconstruct the technical equivalents of the common terms for body parts and organs, by filling in the missing letters in the column on the right.
1. backbone _ _ r _ _ _ _ _ l c _ _ _ _ n
2. breastbone _ _ _ _ _ u _
3. collarbone _ _ a _ _ _ _ e
4. skull _ _ _ _ _ u _
5. upper jaw _ _ _ _ ll _
6. lower jaw m _ _ _ _ b _ e
7. knee cap _ _ t _ _ _ a
8. belly a _ _ o _ _ _
9. tummy _ _ d _ _ _ _
10. belly button u _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s
11. back passage _ n _ _
12. heart muscle _ _ _ _ a _ _ i _ m
9 Abdomens
All of these informal expressions refer to large abdomens (excess abdominal fat). Match them to the definitions.
| 1. | a beer belly (a beer gut) | a. | a large rounded stomach |
| 2. | a potbelly | b. | a large ring of fat around a person’s waist |
| 3. | a spare tyre | c. | fat around the waist and buttocks that appears in many people during middle age |
| 4. | middle-age spread | d. | a fat stomach caused by drinking too much beer |
10 What can body parts/organs do
These verbs can be used to describe the reactions, either physical or emotional, of the body. Match the body part/organ with the right verb and complete the sentences.
| BODY PART/ORGAN | VERB | ||
| 1. | head | a. | kill |
| 2. | eyes | b. | swim |
| 3. | heart | c. | water |
| 4. | blood | d. | rumble |
| 5. | feet | e. | race |
| 6. | stomach | f. | fall |
| 7. | face | g. | boil |
1. I felt awful yesterday. My head was ......................... and I couldn’t concentrate on my work. [I felt dizzy]
2. Our eyes ......................... when we cut up onions. [ fill with tears]
3. The way he talks about other people makes my blood ......................... . [feel very angry]
4. Working on the ward for 12 hours. My feet are ......................... me! [hurting very much]
5. When are we going to have something to eat? My stomach’s ......................... . [borborygmus]
6. His face ......................... when I told him the diagnosis. [looked sad]
7. My heart is ......................... when I drink anything stronger than beer. [palpitations]
11 Give the nouns (all are names of parts/organs of the body) to which these adjectives are related.
1. aortic
2. arterial
3. bony
4. bronchial
5. cardiac heart
6. carotid
7. cartilaginous
8. cerebral
9. gastric
10. hepatic
11. intestinal
12. laryngeal
13. ocular
14. oesophageal
15. pulmonary
16. renal
17. splenic
18. thoracic
19. tracheal
20. venous
12 Look at the diagram and complete the lists below.
1. The main structures in the thorax (chest) are:
a.
b.
c.
d. aorta
e.
2. The abdominal cavity contains the following organs:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
3. Within the pelvis are:
a.
b.
c. in the female, the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries
13 What organ systems do these descriptions refer to? Read out complete definitions.
Cardiovascular 1
Digestive ................................
Endocrine ................................
Integumentary ................................
Lymphatic ................................
Muscular ................................
Nervous ................................
Reproductive ................................
Respiratory ................................
Skeletal ................................
Urinary ................................
1. Consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
2. Comprises four types of structure: lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic nodes and lymphatic ducts.
3. Its organs are the nose, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, the brochioles and the lungs.
4. Consists of the digestive tract and the accessory organs (the teeth, the salivary glands, the liver and bile ducts, and the pancreas).
5. Consists of the following components: the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra.
6. The covering of the body, or skin, including its various layers and their appendages (the epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tissue, sweat glands, hair, nails, sebaceous glands).
7. The ovaries and testes are its components.
8. Produces hormones, which control a variety of bodily functions.
9. It comprises the central and peripheral nervous systems.
10. All the muscles of the body considered collectively.
11. The bones and cartilages of the body.
14 Arrange the terms for body parts/organs in the body under the following headings and/or identify them in the diagrams.
| adrenals • anus • arteries • bladder • blood • brain • bronchus (pl. bronchi) • bronchioles • colon • gallbladder • heart • kidneys • larynx • liver • left/right lung • mouth • nasopharynx • nose • oesophagus • oropharynx • ovaries • pancreas • parathyroids • peripheral nerves • pituitary • salivary glands • small intestine • spinal cord • stomach • testes • thyroid • tongue • trachea • rectum • ureters • urethra • veins • vermiform appendix |
Cardiovascular system
• ......................
• ......................
Respiration
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
Digestion
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
Urinary system
• ......................
• ......................
Endocrine glands
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• ......................
• (females) (males)
Nervous system
• ...................... •
• ...................... •
• ...................... •
15 Look at the commonly used plural endings of medical terms of Greek and Latin origin.
vertebra vertebrae
foramen foramina
testis testes
iris irides
phalanx phalanges
spermatozoon spermatozoa
ovum ova
bronchus bronchi
thorax thoraces
Now, give the plural form of the following nouns.
alveolus
apex
atrium
bacterium
canaliculus
cervix
embolus
epiphysis
gingiva
hallux
hilum
phenomenon
pleura
scapula
septum
thrombus
vena cava
viscus
16 Study the diagram and answer the questions.
The bones, muscles and joints form a system known as the musculoskeletal system. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebrae, rib cage and breastbone and the appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs and the bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
1. Where does the brain lie?
2. What is the movable lower jaw bone called?
3. How many vertebrae are there in the vertebral column (spine)?
4. Which region do the cervical vertebrae occupy?
5. Which vertebrae are fused?
6. What do you call the bone articulating with the sternum and scapula?
7. How many bones are there in the upper arm?
8. How many bones are there in the forearm?
9. Which is shorter, the radius or the ulna?
10. What are the metatarsals?
11. What bones are called phalanges?
12. What are the two names of the bone situated at the front of the knee?
Word Formation
Study the following roots (bases of words) of Latin origin and then complete the definitions.
| Term | Body part/organ |
| abdomin(o) | abdomen |
| arthr(o) | joint |
| brachi(o) | arm |
| cardi(o) | heart, cardiac orifice or portion of the stomach |
| chol(e) | gall, bile |
| cleido(o) | clavicle |
| coron(o) | heart |
| cost(o) | rib |
| crani(o) | skull |
| encephal(o) | brain |
| enter(o) | (small) intestine(s) |
| gastr(o) | stomach |
| hepat(o) | liver |
| phleb(o) | vein |
| stomat(o) | mouth |
| vas(o) | vessel |
| ven(o) | vein |
1. Abdominal pain is pain felt in the abdomen.
2. Arthropathy is any ...................... disease.
3. Brachialgia is pain in the ...................... .
4. Cardiology is the study of the ...................... and its functions.
5. Cholelith is another word for a ...................... stone.
6. Cleidocostal refers to the ...................... and the ...................... .
7. Craniotomy is an operation on the ...................... .
8. Encephalitis is inflammation of the ...................... .
9. Enteropathy is any disease of the ...................... .
10. A gastrologist is a specialist in diseases of the ...................... .
11. Hepatitis is inflammation of the ...................... .
12. Phlebology is the study of the ...................... and their diseases.
13. Stomatalgia is pain in the ...................... .
14. Vasospasm is spasm of the blood ...................... .
15. ...................... blood is the deoxygenated blood found in the systemic circulation.
More reading
1 Read the text and answer the questions.
Anatomy
Before you learn how to examine and treat patients, it is vital to learn anatomy. Anatomy can be divided into microscopic anatomy and macroscopic anatomy. Microscopic anatomy considers structures that cannot be seen without magnification. Cytology analyses the internal structure of individual cells while histology examines tissues. Gross anatomy is the study of large parts of the body that can be seen with the naked eye. Surface anatomy refers to the study of general form and superficial markings. Regional anatomy considers all the superficial and internal features in a specific region of the body, such as the head, neck or trunk. Systemic anatomy considers the structure of major organ systems, which are groups of organs that function together (for example, the heart, blood and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system). Radiological anatomy studies the anatomy of organs and tissues using radiological techniques. Morbid (pathological) anatomy deals with the anatomy of diseased tissues. In living anatomy, the surface markings of internal organs such as the liver or spleen may be studied using living models.
Traditionally, the teaching of anatomy has been by dissection and the dissecting room is an important first step for first-year medical students. Students have a few hours of cadaveric dissection every week and they get hands-on experience of the human body and discuss anatomy with a tutor. The first time they saw the cadaver is a moment they will remember forever. Many students think dissection is one of the most interesting classes. In many medical schools, students do prosections rather than full-body dissections. They learn anatomy on prosected cadaveric specimens, that is material that has been carefully dissected to show a particular structure. Also, skeletons and skeletal material, anatomical models and posters or interactive multimedia are utilized.
1. What are the two names for the anatomical specialty which examines parts of the body seen with the unaided eye?
2. Which anatomical specialty deals with regions of the body?
3. What is another term for a dead body?
4. How is gross anatomy taught?
5. What is living anatomy?
2 Read the table explaining the terms for the regions of the body and identify these regions in the diagrams by putting their assigned numbers in the circles.
| 1 | Abdominal | Below the diaphragm; between the thorax and the pelvis |
| 2 | Antebrachial | Between the elbow and the wrist; forearm; cubital region |
| 3 | Antecubital | Space in front of the elbow |
| 4 | Axillary | Armpit area |
| 5 | Brachial | Arm; proximal portion of the upper limb |
| 6 | Buccal | Region of the cheek |
| 7 | Carpal | Wrist |
| 8 | Coeliac | Abdomen |
| 9 | Cephalic | Head |
| 10 | Costal | Ribs |
| 11 | Cranial | Skull |
| 12 | Crural | Portion of the lower extremity between the knee and the foot |
| 13 | Femoral | Thigh; the part of the lower extremity between the hip and the knee |
| 14 | Frontal | Forehead |
| 15 | Gluteal | Buttock region |
| 16 | Inguinal | Depressed region between the abdomen and the thigh; groin |
| 17 | Leg | Portion of the lower extremity between the knee and the foot; the crural region |
| 18 | Lumbar | Region of the lower back and side between the lowest rib and the pelvis |
| 19 | Mammary | Breast |
| 20 | Occipital | Lower portion of the back of head |
| 21 | Ophthalmic | Eyes |
| 22 | Oral | Mouth |
| 23 | Otic | Ears |
| 24 | Palmar | Palm of the hand |
| 25 | Pectoral | Chest region |
| 26 | Pedal | Foot |
| 27 | Pelvic | Inferior region of the abdominopelvic cavity |
| 28 | Perineal | Region between the anus and pubic symphysis; includes the region of the external reproductive organs |
| 29 | Plantar | Sole of the foot |
| 30 | Popliteal | Area behind the knee |
| 31 | Sacral | Posterior region between the hipbones |
| 32 | Sternal | Anterior midline of the thorax |
| 33 | Tarsal | Ankle and instep of the foot |
| 34 | Thoracic | Chest; part of the trunk inferior to the neck and superior to the diaphragm |
| 35 | Umbilical | Navel; middle region of the abdomen |
| 36 | Vertebral | The spinal column; backbone |
Translation
1 Translate the following into English.
1. krew tętnicza ...................... .
2. drzewo oskrzelowe ...................... .
3. mięsień sercowy ...................... .
4. tętnica mózgowa ...................... .
5. tętnica szyjna ...................... .
6. czynność żołądka ...................... .
7. żyła wątrobowa ...................... .
8. nerw krtaniowy ...................... .
9. tętnica płucna ...................... .
10. żyła nerkowa ...................... .
11. żyła śledzionowa ...................... .
12. ciśnienie żylne ...................... .
2 Translate the sentences into English.
1. Kręgosłup jest zbudowany z 33 kręgów.
2. Kręgi krzyżowe, które się zrosły, tworzą kość krzyżową.
3. Każde żebro ma część kostną, która łączy się stawowo (articulate) z kręgami piersiowymi, i część chrzęstną, która połączona jest z mostkiem.
4. Naczynia chłonne powierzchowne umiejscowione są w skórze i tkance podskórnej.
5. Układ oddechowy składa się z jamy nosowej, gardła, krtani, tchawicy, oskrzeli i płuc.
6. Do układu trawiennego zalicza się przewód pokarmowy (jamę ustną, gardło, przełyk, żołądek, jelito cienkie i jelito grube) oraz gruczoły (wątrobę, trzustkę i ślinianki) i otrzewną.
7. Narząd moczowo-płciowy składa się z układu moczowego (nerki, moczowody, pęcherz moczowy i cewka moczowa) oraz układu płciowego męskiego i żeńskiego, z których każdy zbudowany jest z narządów płciowych wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych.
8. Gruczoły dokrewne regulują wiele czynności organizmu.
Presentation
1 Make short presentations on the following topics, referring to a relevant diagram whenever possible. Start with:
Good morning. / Good afternoon. I’m going to talk to you today about.... / I’ll talk about.... / I’m here today to talk about.... . As you can see.... / The Latin term for this organ is.... but it is commonly known as.... .
1. The organs contained in the thoracic cavity.
2. The contents of the abdominopelvic cavity.
3. The organ systems of the human body.
4. The skeletal system.
5. Teaching of gross anatomy at the Medical University of ............. .
Self-assessment
Now, can you do it?
| YES | NO | NEED MORE PRACTICE | ||
| 1. | Name parts of the body | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 2. | Name contents of body cavities | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 3. | Name organ systems and their components | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 4. | Name body regions | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 5. | Give plural forms of Greek and Latin terminology | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 6. | Give Polish equivalents of all anatomical terms presented in the unit | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 7. | Tell how you are taught/learn gross anatomy | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
