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Unit 2. Anatomical Description
Оглавление| IN THIS UNIT |
| • Anatomical position• Shape and size• Planes and sections of the body |
Starting Out
Work in pairs.
Draw three objects and describe the relative position of one object (square A) to the other objects (triangle B and circle C) to another pair of students without showing them the drawing. Check if they have been able to reconstruct it.
You may find these expressions useful:
(just) below / (just) above, to the right of / to the left of, (immediately) behind / (immediately) in front of, close to / away from / at the level of.
Reading
Read the text, answer the questions that follow and label the diagram with the terms in italics (choose the singular or plural form as appropriate).
The Lungs
The lungs are a pair of large spongy organs lying in the thorax on either side of the heart and great vessels. They extend from the root of the neck to the diaphragm and are roughly conical, with the apex above and the base below. The lungs are surrounded by the ribs and the intercostal muscles. The thoracic vertebrae are situated behind the lungs. The mediastinum, which is between the lungs, completely separates one side of the thoracic cavity from the other as it extends from the vertebral column at the back to the sternum in front. The mediastinum contains the heart and great vessels, the trachea and the oesophagus, the thoracic duct and the thymus gland.
The lungs are divided into lobes. The left lung has two lobes, the upper (superior) lobe and the lower (inferior) lobe, separated by the oblique fissure. The right lung has three lobes, upper, middle and lower. The upper and middle lobes are separated by a horizontal fissure and the lower lobe is separated by an oblique fissure. Each lobe is further divided into bronchopulmonary segments, separated from each other by septa of connective tissue and each having an artery and a vein. Each segment is divided into smaller units (lobules).
The bronchi and their branching structures are known as the bronchial tree. The two main bronchi begin at the bifurcation of the trachea and one leads into each lung. The left main bronchus is narrower, longer and more horizontal than the right bronchus. The bronchi divide into branches, one for each lobe. Each of these divides into smaller branches, one for each bronchopulmonary segment, and branches again into smaller bronchi within the lung. The finest bronchi are called bronchioles or bronchioli. The terminal bronchioles branch repeatedly to form minute passages called alveolar ducts, from which alveolar sacs and alveoli open. The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
The pleura is a serous membrane, which surrounds each lung and has two layers, so there are two pleurae. The visceral pleura covers the surfaces of the lungs. At the root of the lungs it is reflected back and becomes parietal pleura, which lines the chest wall and covers the superior surface of the diaphragm. The two layers of the pleura are normally in close contact with each other, separated by a film of serous secretion that enables them to glide over one another without friction, which facilitates the movement of the lungs in the chest. The potential space between the layers is called the pleural cavity.
1. What is the position of the lungs in relation to the heart?
2. What adjective is used to describe the appearance and texture of the lungs?
3. What is the shape of the lungs? What word is used to indicate that they are not exactly like this object in shape?
4. Where are the intercostal muscles situated in relation to the lungs?
5. Where is the mediastinum located?
6. What are the contents of the mediastinum?
7. How many fissures are there in the lungs?
8. What are the divisions and subdivisions of the lungs?
9. How does the right bronchus differ in shape from the left bronchus?
10. What are the divisions and subdivisions of the bronchi?
11. What are brionchioles?
12. What are alveolar ducts?
13. Which layer of the pleura covers the lungs and which lines the chest wall?
14. What is the role of the pleural cavity?
VOCABULARY
POSITION
In anatomical position, the body is erect and facing forwards with arms at the sides. The palms and toes are directed forwards. The following adjectives are commonly used in anatomical description.
• Superior: a part is above another part, or closer to the head
• Inferior: a part is below another part, or closer to the feet
• Anterior: a part is towards the front (surface)
• Posterior: a part is towards the back
• Ventral: front or towards the front of the body
• Dorsal: back or towards the back of the body
• Proximal: a part is closer to a point of attachment, or closer to the trunk of the body than another part
• Distal: a part is farther away from a point of attachment than another part
• Medial: a part is towards, or nearer, the midline of the body
• Lateral: a part is towards, or nearer, the side, away from the midline of the body
• Superficial: a part located on or near the surface
• Deep: a part is away from the surface
• External: outer
• Internal: inner
• Visceral: refers to internal organs or the covering of the organs
• Parietal: refers to the wall of a body cavity
• Prone: lying on the stomach, face down
• Supine: lying on the back, face up
1 Complete the sentences using appropriate adjectives from the list above.
1. The epidermis is the ........ (or outermost) layer of the skin.
2. The fingers are ........ to the wrist.
3. The elbow is ........ to the wrist.
4. The mouth is ...... to the nose.
5. The heart is ...... to the sternum.
6. The ...... cavity is subdivided into the thorax and the abdomen.
7. Muscles are ...... to the skin.
8. The heart is ...... to the vertebral column.
9. The nose is ...... to the ears.
10. The ...... portion is subdivided into the cranial portion, containing the brain and the spinal portion containing the spinal cord.
11. The nose is ...... to the mouth.
12. The ...... pleura covers the lungs.
13. The ...... pleura lines the chest wall.
14. The ...... nose is the visible part of the nose.
15. The ears are ...... to the eyes.
16. The ovaries are female ...... genital organs.
2 Use these adjectives and the verbs to be or to be situated or to be located or to be positioned or to lie to describe the relative positions of the following body parts.
Example: The heart lies superior to the diaphragm.
| 1. Superior/inferior | heart and diaphragm |
| 2. Anterior/posterior | heart and sternum |
| 3. Medial/lateral | heart and lungs |
| 4. Proximal/distal | knee and ankle |
| 5. Superficial/deep | skin and subcutaneous tissue |
3 Explain the meaning of these adjectives.
• anteroinferior = located in front and below
• anterolateral = ............ and on the side
• anteromedial = ............ and towards the ............
• anteroposterior = directed towards both front and ............
• anterosuperior = located in ............ and ............
• posteroinferior = located at or towards the ............ and ............
• posterolateral = located on the side and ............
• posteromedial = ............ in back and towards the ............
4 Complete the sentences describing the position of the stomach in relation to some other abdominal organs
1. The .................... surface of the stomach is related to the liver and the anterior abdominal wall.
2. The stomach is related .................... to the liver and the anterior abdominal wall.
3. The .................... surface of the stomach is related to the pancreas and the spleen.
4. The stomach is related .................... to the pancreas and the spleen.
| Note:• Adjectives (anterior, posterior, etc.) are used to describe a fixed location of an anatomical structure.The heart lies posterior to the sternum.• Adverbs (anteriorly, posteriorly, etc.) are used when an action or direction is described.The abdominal aorta is crossed anteriorly by the left renal vein. |
5 Fill in each blank with either an adjective or an adverb from the box.
| anterior / anteriorly • inferior / inferiorly • distal / distally • posterior / posteriorly • superior / superiorly • proximal / proximally • lateral / laterally • horizontal / horizontally • oblique / obliquely • medial / medially • transverse / transversely |
a. The abdominal aorta is crossed (1) anteriorly by the left renal vein, the pancreas and the root of the mesentery.
b. The abdominal aorta lies (2) ......................... to the vertebral column.
c. The intercostal arteries communicate (3) ......................... with the internal mammary arteries.
d. The internal carotid arteries supply the (4) ......................... part of the brain.
e. Each subclavian artery passes (5) ......................... over the first rib.
f. The deep femoral artery is at first (6) ......................... and then (7) ......................... to the femoral artery.
g. The cephalic vein arises on the (8) ......................... side of the hand and ascends on the (9) ......................... side of the forearm.
h. The basilic vein runs from the (10) ......................... side of the hand up the (11) ......................... side of the forearm and arm.
i. Each greater wing of the sphenoid bone extends (12) ......................... .
j. All ribs articulate (13) ......................... with the vertebral column and arch (14) ......................... round the thorax.
k. The lower end of the humerus is expanded (15) ......................... .
l. The supracondylar ridges of the humerus extend (16) ......................... .
m. The medial part of the lower end of the humerus extends more (17) ......................... than the lateral.
n. The carpus consists of eight bones arranged in two rows, (18) ......................... and (19) ......................... .
o. The clavicle runs (20) ......................... at the root of the neck.
p. In the right lung, the (21) ......................... fissure separates the upper from the middle lobe and the (22) ......................... fissure separates the upper and middle lobes from the lower.
q. (23) ......................... the roof of the pharynx is continuous with the oesophagus.
r. The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the heart from parts of the body (24) ......................... to the diaphragm.
s. The pelvic portion of the ureter turns (25) ......................... and reaches the bladder.
t. In the female the (26) ......................... surface of the urinary bladder is related to the body of the uterus.
6 Describe the position of these body parts linking the left and right columns with the appropriate expression: at the top (of), at the bottom (of), at the front (of), at the sides (of), on either (each) side (of), at the back (of), at the level (of).
| The thyroid gland is situated | at the front and sides of | the neck. |
| The kidneys are situated | the vertebral column. | |
| The kidneys lie | the twelfth thoracic to the third lumbar vertebrae. | |
| The atlas is found | the vertebral column. | |
| The coccyx is positioned | the vertebral column. | |
| The thoracic cavity is bounded | the vertebral column and intercostal muscles. |
7 Describe the position of these body organs using the verbs to lie or to be found or to be located or to be positioned and matching the organ on the left with the corresponding location on the right.
| 1. The lungs... | a. ...in the central and lower parts of the abdominal cavity. |
| 2. The stomach... | b. ...between the posterior borders of the lobes of the thyroid gland and its capsule. |
| 3. The small intestine... | c. ...between the end of the oesophagus and the beginning of the small intestine. |
| 4. The thyroid gland... | d. ...in the posterior part of the abdomen, behind the peritoneum. |
| 5. The parathyroid glands... | e. ...in the thorax on either side of the heart and great vessels. |
| 6. The kidneys... | f. ...at the front and sides of the neck. |
| 7. Each adrenal gland… | g. …at the base of the brain. |
| 8. The brain… | h. …just below the neck under the top of the sternum. |
| 9. The pituitary gland… | i. …in the pelvis, one on either side of the uterus. |
| 10. The ovaries… | j. …in the upper, left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and pancreas. |
| 11. The spleen… | k. …on top of one of the two kidneys. |
| 12. The thymus … | l. …within the skull. |
| 13. The uterus … | m. …at the base of the tongue. |
| 14. The prostate gland… | n. …the upper left side of the abdomen. |
| 15. The lingual tonsils… | o. …just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. |
| 16. The pancreas… | p. …under the liver, between the stomach and the small intestine. |
| 17. The stomach… | q. …on the posteroinferior surface of the liver. |
| 18. The gallbladder… | r. …on top of the bladder, in front of the rectum. |
8 Describe the position of the aorta using appropriate verbs from the box.
| arch • arise • end • enter • pass (×2) |
The aorta arises from the upper part of the left ventricle, ....... upwards and to the right and then ....... backwards to the left and ....... down through the thorax on the left side of the spine. It ....... the abdominal cavity through an opening in the diaphragm called the aortic hiatus. It ....... at the lower border of the fourth lumbar vertebra by dividing into the right and left common iliac arteries.
In the completed text above identify the position of the following: the ascending aorta, the arch of the aorta, the descending thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta.
9 Describe the position of the oesophagus using appropriate verbs from the box.
| begin • descend • end • extend • pass • pierce |
The oesophagus extends from the pharynx to the stomach. It ......................... at the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae and ......................... through the mediastinum in front of the vertebral column and behind the trachea. It ......................... through (.........................) the diaphragm at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra and ......................... at the cardiac orifice of the stomach at the level of the eleventh thoracic vertebra.
STRUCTURE
10 Complete the sentences by choosing appropriate verbs (and prepositions) from the box.
| attach / be attached (to) • bound / be bounded (by) • compose / be composed (of) • connect • consist (of) • contain • cover / be covered (with) • (sub)divide / be (sub)divided (into) • fill / be filled (with) • form / be formed (by/of) • join / be joined (by/to) • line / be lined (with) • make up / be made up (of) • separate / be separated (by) • support / be supported (by) • surround / be surrounded (by) |
1. The face .......... 14 bones.
2. The vertebral column .......... a number of irregular bones called the vertebrae.
3. Fibrocartilage .......... more collagen fibres than hyaline cartilage.
4. Skeletal muscle .......... the flesh of the limbs and trunk.
5. The cavities and hollow organs of the body .......... membranes.
6. The anterior part of the sclera .......... conjunctiva.
7. The thyroid gland .......... a number of closed follicles.
8. The nasal cavity .......... a septum.
9. The external nose .......... the two nasal bones and by cartilage.
10. Some of the bones which .......... the nasal cavity are hollow.
11. The wall of the trachea .......... involuntary muscle and fibrous tissue strengthened by hyaline cartilage.
12. The mouth is a cavity .......... externally by the lips and cheeks.
13. The tongue .......... the hyoid bone and the mandible.
14. The diaphragm .......... the thorax .......... the abdomen.
15. The brain .......... the cranial cavity.
SHAPE AND SIZE
11 Match the names of the body organs or their parts with descriptions of their shape and size.
Body organ
1. The thymus gland
2. The bladder
3. The stomach
4. The eye
5. Lymphatic nodes
6. The hilum
7. The lungs
8. The heart
9. The ovaries
10. The duodenum
11. The gall bladder
12. The kidneys
13. The pancreas
14. The pineal body
Shape and size
a. a hollow, cone-shaped organ, the size of a fist
b. small bodies varying in size from a pin-head to an almond
c. two roughly cone shaped organs
d. a triangular-shaped depression on the concave medial surface of the lung
e. an approximately J-shaped organ
f. a roughly C-shaped tube
g. a pear-shaped organ
h. a small reddish body about the size of a cherry stone
i. two bean-shaped organs
j. its size and shape vary with the amount of fluid it contains
k. it is spherical in shape
l. two small glands about the size and shape of almonds
m. it varies in size with age
n. a fish-shaped gland
12 Make your own descriptions of the shape and size of body organs using the following patterns.
1. Noun [body organ] + be + shaped like + noun.
.................
2. Noun [body organ] + be + noun-shaped organ.
.................
3. Noun [body organ] + be + adjective organ.
.................
4. Noun [body organ] + looks like / resembles + noun.
.................
5. Noun [body organ] + looks like / resembles + description].
The sphenoid bone looks like a bat in flight.
6. Noun [body organ] + be + roughly/approximately adjective in shape.
.................
7. Noun [body organ] + be + the size of + a noun.
.................
8. Noun [body organ] + be + [2 cm] long/wide/thick.
.................
9. Noun [body organ] + be/measures + [2 cm] in length/width/thickness/diameter.
.................
10. Noun [body organ] + measures [2 cm x [by] 2 cm x [by] 2 cm].
.................
11. Noun [body organ] + weighs [150 g].
.................
WORD FORMATION
Study the following prefixes of Latin origin and then complete the definitions.
| Prefix | Direction |
| circum- | around |
| dextr/o- | right |
| en-, endo- | inside, within |
| epi- | above, over, upon |
| extra- | outside |
| infra- | below, beneath |
| inter- | between |
| intra- | within |
| juxta- | near |
| para- | alongside, near, beyond, abnormal |
| per- | through, throughout |
| peri- | around, surrounding |
| post- | after, behind |
| retro- | behind, backward |
| sub- | under, beneath |
| supra- | above, beyond |
| trans- | across |
1. C… … …oral means around or near the mouth.
2. Location of the heart in the right hemithorax is known as d… … … …cardia.
3. E… … … …peritoneal means situated outside the peritoneal cavity.
4. I… … …diaphragmatic means inferior to the diaphragm.
5. I… … … …costal means situated between the ribs.
6. I… … … …gastric means situated or occurring within the stomach.
7. J… … … …articular means situated near a joint or in the region of a joint.
8. P… … … …vertebral means beside the vertebral column.
9. P… … … …cutaneous means performed through the skin, as injection.
10. P… … … …lobar mans surrounding a lobe.
11. P… … … …renal means located behind the kidney.
12. R… … … …pharynx is the posterior part of the pharynx.
13. S… … … …pulmonary means situated or occurring below the lung.
14. S… … … …thoracic means situated superior to the thorax.
15. T… …thoracic means performed through the wall of the thorax or through the thoracic cavity.
MORE READING
1 Read the text and identify anatomical planes in the diagram
In human and animal anatomy, three principal hypothetical planes are used separating the body into sections to describe the position of anatomical structures or the direction of movements. The frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior (ventral and dorsal) portions. The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left portions. If the cut passes through the midline of the body, it is called a median or midsagittal plane. If the cut is parallel to the sagittal plane, it is called a parasagittal plane. The transverse (horizontal) plane divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior (cranial and caudal portions). A cross-section is a transverse cut through a structure or tissue. A longitudinal section is a cut along the long axis of a structure. An oblique section is a diagonal section through a structure in any plane that is neither longitudinal nor transverse.
2 Read the text and answer the questions.
The Heart
The heart is located in the middle mediastinal region of the thoracic cavity between the two lungs. It is posterior to the sternum and anterior to the vertebral column, and it rests on the diaphragm. About two-thirds of the heart mass is to the left of the midline and one-third is on the right. The apex, or pointed end of the heart, is directed inferiorly, anteriorly and to the left. It extends downwards to the level of the fifth intercostal space. The opposite end, the base, is larger and less pointed than the apex and has several large vessels attached to it. The base is directed superiorly, posteriorly, and to the right. Its most superior portion is at the level of the second rib. The size of the heart varies with the size of the individual. On average, it is about 9 cm wide and 12 cm long, about the size of a closed fist. The heart and the proximal portions of the vessels attached to its base are enclosed by a loose-fitting, double layered sac called the pericardium, or pericardial sac. The outer layer of the pericardium is called the fibrous pericardium. It is attached to the diaphragm, the posterior portion of the sternum, the vertebrae, and the large vessels at the base of the heart. The fibrous pericardium is lined with a layer of serous membrane called the parietal pericardium. Where the pericardium is attached to the vessels at the base of the heart, the parietal pericardium reflects onto the surface of the heart to form the visceral pericardium, or epicardium. The small potential space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium is the pericardial cavity. The heart wall is formed by three layers of tissue. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, which forms the bulk of the heart wall, and the inner layer is the endocardium. The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium and the left ventricle. The two atria are thin-walled upper chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled lower chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. The heart is divided from base to apex by a muscular partition called the septum. The two sides of the heart have no communication with each other. Each atrium communicates with the ventricle below it on the same side of the heart through an opening guarded by the atrioventricular valve, (the bicuspid or mitral valve on the left and the tricuspid valve on the right).
1. Is the heart located in the anterior mediastinum, between the second and fifth ribs?
2. Is it positioned to the right or to the left of the midline?
3. Is the direction of the apex and the base of the heart the same?
4. What size is the heart?
5. What is the pericardium?
6. What lines the fibrous pericardium?
7. What is the epicardium?
8. What is the heart wall composed of?
9. What does the endocardium line?
10. What divides the heart longitudinally?
11. Which chambers of the heart communicate with each other and which do not?
12. Where is the atrioventricular valve situated?
TRANSLATION
Translate the passage into English.
Serce ma kształt zbliżony do stożka. Położone jest w klatce piersiowej, w śródpiersiu. Większa część serca leży po lewej stronie. Serce otoczone jest błoną surowiczą –osierdziem. Osierdzie składa się z dwóch blaszek: trzewnej, przylegającej ściśle do mięśnia sercowego, i ściennej, stanowiącej blaszkę zewnętrzną. Ściana serca zbudowana jest z trzech warstw. Podstawa serca skierowana jest ku górze, tyłowi i stronie prawej, a wierzchołek skierowany jest ku dołowi, do przodu i w stronę lewą. Wnętrze serca wysłane jest błoną – wsierdziem. Jama serca podzielona jest przegrodami na cztery części. Przegroda przedsionkowo-komorowa oddziela przedsionki od komór, przegroda międzyprzedsionkowa oddziela przedsionek prawy od lewego, a przegroda międzykomorowa oddziela komorę prawą od lewej.
Zastawka przedsionkowo-komorowa lewa zwana dwudzielną chroni ujście przedsionkowo-komorowe lewe. Składa się z dwóch płatków (flaps/cusps/leaflets) – przedniego i tylnego. Zastawka przedsionkowo-komorowa prawa (zastawka trójdzielna) składa się z trzech płatków – przedniego, tylnego i przegrodowego.
PRESENTATIONS
1 Give a description of a body organ. In your description you should answer the following questions:
1. What is it like in shape?
2. What size is it? / How big is it?
3. Where in the body does it lie?
4. Where is it situated in relation to other organs?
5. What is it made up of?
6. What parts is it divided into?
Do not name the organ but let your audience guess what it is.
2 Give a description of a body organ as you are drawing it at the same time (do not worry about the quality of your drawing). Use the same pattern of the presentation as above.
3 Work in pairs.
Student A identifies a body organ by asking Student B open questions about it. Where does it lie?
What shape is it? and so on.
4 Work in pairs.
Student A identifies a body organ by asking Student B YES/NO questions about it
Does it lie in the thorax?
Is it roughly cone-shaped? and so on.
5 Work in pairs.
Student A prepares a set of five “examination” questions about the anatomy of a body organ of his/her choice. Student B answers the questions. Then the examiner and the examinee change roles.
6 Give a short presentation of a body organ, referring to a relevant diagram if possible.
Start with presenting the topic Today I’m going to present... and then give the outline of your presentation.
I’m going to look at four main areas.
First, I’ll talk about the position of the...
Then I will present the structure...
And finally I will deal with its shape and size.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Now, can you do it?
| YES | NO | NEED MORE PRACTICE | ||
| 1. | List adjectives of Latin origin describing anatomical position | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 2. | Describe the position of organs in the body | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 3. | Describe the position of one organ in relation to another | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 4. | Describe the structure of a body organ | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 5. | Describe the shape of a body organ | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 6. | Describe the size of a body organ | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
| 7. | Search for and read a medical publication in English available online or in print and summarize it in Polish: an anatomical description of a body organ/structure. | ☐ | ☐ | ☐ |
