Читать книгу Biochemistry For Dummies - John Moore T., Richard Langley H., John T. Moore - Страница 5

1 Chapter 1FIGURE 1-1: Simplified prokaryotic cell.FIGURE 1-2: Simplified illustration of an animal cell.FIGURE 1-3: Simplified illustration of a plant cell.

2 Chapter 2FIGURE 2-1: Structure of a water molecule.FIGURE 2-2: Structure of a typical amphipathic (both water-loving and water-hat...FIGURE 2-3: Structure of a micelle, composed of amphipathic molecules, with the...

3 Chapter 3FIGURE 3-1: Top: straight chain hydrocarbon expanded and condensed. Middle: bra...FIGURE 3-2: Examples of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.FIGURE 3-3: Oxygen- and sulfur-containing functional groups.FIGURE 3-4: Some nitrogen-containing functional groups.FIGURE 3-5: Phosphorous-containing functional groups.FIGURE 3-6: Acetals, hemiacetals, hemiketals, and ketals.FIGURE 3-7: Cis and trans isomers.FIGURE 3-8: The structure of glucose, a sugar with four chiral carbon atoms.FIGURE 3-9: The construction of a Fischer projection.FIGURE 3-10: Fischer projection formulas distinguish stereoisomers.

4 Chapter 4FIGURE 4-1: A zwitterion’s formation.FIGURE 4-2: (a) zwitterion form, (b) protonated form, and (c) deprotonated form...FIGURE 4-3: Different ways of drawing the Fischer projections of the amino acid...FIGURE 4-4: Nonpolar amino acids.FIGURE 4-5: Polar amino acids.FIGURE 4-6: Acidic amino acids.FIGURE 4-7: Basic amino acids.FIGURE 4-8: Two of the less common amino acids.FIGURE 4-9: Joining two cysteine molecules to form cystine.FIGURE 4-10: The formation of a peptide bond.FIGURE 4-11: Resonance stabilization of a peptide bond.FIGURE 4-12: A tripeptide.

5 Chapter 5FIGURE 5-1: Repeating sequence of the protein backbone.FIGURE 5-2: Structure of bovine insulin.FIGURE 5-3: Hydrogen bonding between two peptide bonds.FIGURE 5-4: The generic structure of an -helix with its corresponding ribbon d...FIGURE 5-5: Parallel and antiparallel -pleated sheet structures.FIGURE 5-6: Some tertiary structures appearing in proteins.

6 Chapter 6FIGURE 6-1: General form, unbalanced, of two transferase catalyzed reactions.FIGURE 6-2: General form of two hydrolase catalyzed reactions.FIGURE 6-3: General form of two lyase catalyzed reactions.FIGURE 6-4: Examples of isomerase reactions catalyzed by a racemase and an epim...FIGURE 6-5: Reactions illustrating the action of the ligases pyruvate carboxyla...FIGURE 6-6: The Lock and Key Model of enzyme catalysis.FIGURE 6-7: The Induced-Fit Model of enzyme catalysis.FIGURE 6-8: Effect of an enzyme on a reaction.FIGURE 6-9: Plot of reaction rate, V, versus substrate concentration, [substrat...FIGURE 6-10: A Lineweaver-Burk plot.FIGURE 6-11: A Woolf plot.FIGURE 6-12: An Eadie-Hofstee plot.FIGURE 6-13: A Lineweaver-Burk plot indicating noncompetitive inhibition.FIGURE 6-14: A Lineweaver-Burk plot indicating competitive inhibition.

7 Chapter 7FIGURE 7-1: The relationship between the three-dimensional structure around a c...FIGURE 7-2: Structure of D-glucose.FIGURE 7-3: Structures of the D-aldohexoses.FIGURE 7-4: Structures of the D-ketohexoses.FIGURE 7-5: A pyranose ring.FIGURE 7-6: The Haworth projections for the pyranose structures of D-glucose.FIGURE 7-7: A furanose ring.FIGURE 7-8: Two forms of D-fructose.FIGURE 7-9: Two representations of the structure of D-ribose.FIGURE 7-10: D-ribitol.FIGURE 7-11: D-ribonic acid, an aldonic acid.FIGURE 7-12: D-ribouronic acid, a uronic acid.FIGURE 7-13: D-ribose-1-phosphate.FIGURE 7-14: Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.FIGURE 7-15: The arrows point to the positions of the alcohol groups leading to...FIGURE 7-16: The structure of maltose with a (1-4) linkage present.FIGURE 7-17: Cellobiose showing its (1-4) linkage.FIGURE 7-18: Structure of sucrose, formed by joining -D-glucose and -D-fructo...FIGURE 7-19: Disaccharide repeating units in hyaluronate and heparin.FIGURE 7-20: Symbolic representations of the members of the D-aldose family.FIGURE 7-21: The relative positions of the groups in the bottom row of Figure...FIGURE 7-22: The overall pattern in Figure 7-20.

8 Chapter 8FIGURE 8-1: The relationships among the many types of lipids.FIGURE 8-2: Representation of a soap.FIGURE 8-3: Structure of glycerol.FIGURE 8-4: Structure of a typical fat: Upper chains are saturated; bottom chai...FIGURE 8-5: Examples of the general formulas of a phosphatidylethanolamine and ...FIGURE 8-6: Alcohol components of lipids.FIGURE 8-7: Structure of sphingosine.FIGURE 8-8: A simplified representation of a lipid bilayer.FIGURE 8-9: An integral protein that doesn’t pass through the membrane.FIGURE 8-10: An integral protein passing through the membrane.FIGURE 8-11: Basic structure of a steroid.FIGURE 8-12: Structures of arachidonic acid and a typical prostaglandin, thromb...

9 Chapter 9FIGURE 9-1: Basic purine structure (top) and basic pyrimidine structure (bottom...FIGURE 9-2: Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)...FIGURE 9-3: Structures of the 5-carbon sugars present in nucleic acids.FIGURE 9-4: Structure of phosphoric acid.FIGURE 9-5: General reaction for the formation of a nucleoside.FIGURE 9-6: Structure of the nucleoside adenosine.FIGURE 9-7: Simplified representation of the formation of a nucleotide.FIGURE 9-8: Structure of adenosine monophosphate (AMP).FIGURE 9-9: Simplified representation of the joining of two nucleotides.FIGURE 9-10: 5’ and 3’ carbon atoms on adenosine monophosphate.FIGURE 9-11: Hydrogen bonds (dotted lines) form between adenine (right) and thy...FIGURE 9-12: Hydrogen bonds (dotted lines) form between guanine (right) and cyt...FIGURE 9-13: Hydrogen bonds (dotted lines) form between adenine (right) and ura...FIGURE 9-14: The secondary structure of DNA.

10 Chapter 10FIGURE 10-1: Structures of vitamin B₁ (thiamine) and thiamine pyrophosphate (TP...FIGURE 10-2: Structure of flavin adenine dinucleotide (the entire structure) an...FIGURE 10-3: Structures of nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, and nicotinamide adeni...FIGURE 10-4: Structures of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and pyridoxal p...FIGURE 10-5: Structure of biotin.FIGURE 10-6: Structures of folic acid and tetrahydrofolic acid.FIGURE 10-7: Structure of pantothenic acid.FIGURE 10-8: Structure of methylcobalamin.FIGURE 10-9: Structures of 11-trans-retinol and-carotene. Carbon 11 is the fif...FIGURE 10-10: Structure of vitamin C.FIGURE 10-11: Structures of ergosterol and vitamin D₂.FIGURE 10-12: Structures of 7-dehydrocholesterol and vitamin D₃.FIGURE 10-13: Structure of -tocopherol (vitamin E).FIGURE 10-14: Structure of vitamin K₁.

11 Chapter 11FIGURE 11-1: Structures of the growth-hormone-release-inhibitory factor and the...FIGURE 11-2: Structures of progesterone (an estrogen), testosterone (an androge...FIGURE 11-3: Structures of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, epinephrine, and norepi...FIGURE 11-4: Schematic of hormone control in the body.FIGURE 11-5: Structure of cyclic AMP.

12 Chapter 12FIGURE 12-1: Structure of ATP.FIGURE 12-2: Structure of ADP.FIGURE 12-3: Structure of AMP.FIGURE 12-4: Magnesium complexes with ATP and ADP.FIGURE 12-5: Structures of some high-energy molecules.FIGURE 12-6: Two of the reactions catalyzed by the kinase enzymes.

13 Chapter 13FIGURE 13-1: Steps in glycolysis.FIGURE 13-2: Molecules involved in glycolysis.FIGURE 13-3: Steps in gluconeogenesis.FIGURE 13-4: Steps in alcoholic fermentation.FIGURE 13-5: Structure of acetyl-CoA.FIGURE 13-6: Citric acid (Krebs) cycle.FIGURE 13-7: Structures of molecules involved in the citric acid (Krebs) cycle.FIGURE 13-8: Simplified scheme for the formation of acetyl-CoA.FIGURE 13-9: Structures of TPP, lipoamide, and acetyllipoamide.FIGURE 13-10: Structure of cis-aconitate.FIGURE 13-11: Fate of the amino acids.FIGURE 13-12: General structures of the oxidized and reduced forms of a ubiquin...FIGURE 13-13: The heme core and attachment sites (R).FIGURE 13-14: Steps in the electron transport chain.FIGURE 13-15: Electron transport chain, emphasizing the cyclic nature of each o...FIGURE 13-16: General steps in the -oxidation cycle.FIGURE 13-17: Formation of the ketone bodies.FIGURE 13-18: Synthesis of malonyl-CoA.FIGURE 13-19: Fatty acid synthesis.FIGURE 13-20: Formation of a phosphatidate.FIGURE 13-21: Formation of sphingosine.FIGURE 13-22: Equilibrium between glutamate and -ketoglutaric acid.FIGURE 13-23: Formation of alanine.FIGURE 13-24: Synthesis of tyrosine.FIGURE 13-25: Synthesis of serine.FIGURE 13-26: Synthesis of proline.

14 Chapter 14FIGURE 14-1: Purine nitrogen bases.FIGURE 14-2: Activation of D-ribose-5’-phosphate.FIGURE 14-3: The ten steps necessary to convert PRPP (5-phospho--D-ribose 1-py...FIGURE 14-4: Conversion of IMP to AMP.FIGURE 14-5: Conversion of IMP to GMP.FIGURE 14-6: Synthesis of carbamoyl phosphate.FIGURE 14-7: Formation of orotate from carbamoyl phosphate.FIGURE 14-8: Conversion of orotate to uridylate (UMP).FIGURE 14-9: Conversion of UTP to CTP.FIGURE 14-10: Structure of uric acid.FIGURE 14-11: General transamination reaction.FIGURE 14-12: Fates of the amino acids.FIGURE 14-13: Formation of carbamoyl phosphate.FIGURE 14-14: Overview of the urea cycle.FIGURE 14-15: Compounds from the urea cycle.

15 Chapter 15FIGURE 15-1: A schematic illustration of the base pairs present in a segment of...FIGURE 15-2: A simplified representation of replication.FIGURE 15-3: A simplified scheme of the replication of DNA.FIGURE 15-4: Detailed scheme of the replication of DNA.FIGURE 15-5: A simplified view of the prepriming complex.FIGURE 15-6: Formation of the RNA primer.FIGURE 15-7: An expanded representation of the replication fork.FIGURE 15-8: Structure of a thymine dimer.FIGURE 15-9: The purines.FIGURE 15-10: The pyrimidines.FIGURE 15-11: Opening of a plasmid by a restriction enzyme such as EcoRI.FIGURE 15-12: Gel electrophoresis.FIGURE 15-13: Structures of ribose, deoxyribose, and dideoxyribose.FIGURE 15-14: Comparison of results for paternity testing.

16 Chapter 16FIGURE 16-1: Structure of ATP.FIGURE 16-2: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic promoter sites.FIGURE 16-3: Linking of the second nucleotide to the tag, using pppG as an exam...FIGURE 16-4: The hairpin and subsequent portion of the RNA.FIGURE 16-5: The general structure of an mRNA cap.FIGURE 16-6: The attachment of an amino acid to the terminal adenosine.FIGURE 16-7: Structures of methionine and formylmethionine.FIGURE 16-8: The start signals.FIGURE 16-9: Diagram of a generic operon.FIGURE 16-10: Diagram of the lac operon.FIGURE 16-11: Lactose and allolactose are disaccharides.FIGURE 16-12: Structure of methylated cytosine.FIGURE 16-13: Structure of estrogen.FIGURE 16-14: Reaction catalyzed by histone acetyltransferases (HATs).

17 Chapter 17FIGURE 17-1: Simplified schematic of the structure of the 16S form of ribosomal...FIGURE 17-2: The structures of methionine and formylmethionine attached to tRNA...FIGURE 17-3: The structure of inosine.FIGURE 17-4: Some aspects of the structure of tRNA.FIGURE 17-5: An example of an aminoacyl-tRNA.FIGURE 17-6: Structure of an aminoacyl adenylate.FIGURE 17-7: Structures of serine, valine, and threonine.