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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Standard cross‐section model of the geosphere. Major compositiona...Figure 1.2 Major layers and seismic (p‐wave) velocity changes within Earth; ...Figure 1.3 World map showing the distribution of major plates separated by b...Figure 1.4 Principal types of plate boundaries: (a) divergent; (b) convergen...Figure 1.5 Major features of continental rifts include rift valleys, thinned...Figure 1.6 Model showing the growth of ocean basins by sea floor spreading f...Figure 1.7 Map of the ocean floor showing the distribution of the oceanic ri...Figure 1.8 The formation of oceanic crust along the ridge axis generates lay...Figure 1.9 Model depicts the production of alternating normal (colored) and ...Figure 1.10 World map showing the age of oceanic crust; such maps confirmed ...Figure 1.11 Convergent plate boundary, showing trench‐arc system, inclined s...Figure 1.12 Subduction zone depicting details of sediment distribution, sedi...Figure 1.13 (a) Ocean basin shrinks by subduction, as continents on two plat...Figure 1.14 (a) Diagram depicting the convergence of India and Asia which cl...Figure 1.15 Transform faults offsetting ridge segments on the eastern Pacifi...Figure 1.16 Fracture zones, transform faults and ridge segments in the easte...Figure 1.17 (a) Linear seamount chain formed by plate movement over the Hawa...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Simplified model atom with nucleus that contains positively charg...Figure 2.2 (a) Nuclear configurations of the three common isotopes of hydrog...Figure 2.3 Distribution of electrons in the principal quantum levels (“elect...Figure 2.4 The quantum properties of electrons in the 92 naturally occurring...Figure 2.5 The diagonal rule for determining the sequence in which electrons...Figure 2.6 Trends in variation of atomic radii (in angstroms; 1 Å = 10⁻¹⁰...Figure 2.7 Radii (in angstroms) of some common cations in relationship to th...Figure 2.8 Radii (in angstroms) of some common anions in relationship to the...Figure 2.9 Radii (in angstrom units) of some common anions and cations of su...Figure 2.10 (a) Ionic bonding develops between highly electronegative anions...Figure 2.11 Relationship between attractive and repulsive forces between ion...Figure 2.12 Covalent bonding in oxygen (O₂) by the sharing of two electrons ...Figure 2.13 (a) Covalent bonding (double lines) in a carbon tetrahedron with...Figure 2.14 A model of metallic bonds with delocalized electrons (dark red) ...Figure 2.15 Graph showing the electronegativity difference and bond type in ...Figure 2.16 Triangular diagram representing the bond types of some common mi...Figure 2.17 Van der Waals bonding occurs when one atom becomes dipolar as th...Figure 2.18 Diagram showing two water molecules joined by a hydrogen bond th...Figure 2.19 Common coordination polyhedra: (a) cubic closest packing, (b) cu...Figure 2.20 A silica tetrahedron is formed when four oxygen ions (O⁻²)...Figure 2.21 Major silicate structures: (a) nesosilicate, (b) sorosilicate, (...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Criteria for substitution are (a) similar size, (b) similar charg...Figure 3.2 Olivine complete substitution solid solution series.Figure 3.3 Compositions of carbonate minerals expressed in terms of the prop...Figure 3.4 Coupled ionic substitution in the plagioclase solid solution seri...Figure 3.5 Limited substitution and miscibility gap in calcium–magnesium car...Figure 3.6 Phase diagram for silica depicting the temperature–pressure stabi...Figure 3.7 Plagioclase phase stability diagram at atmospheric pressure, with...Figure 3.8 Diopside–anorthite phase diagram at atmospheric pressure.Figure 3.9 Albite–orthoclase phase diagram at atmospheric pressure.Figure 3.10 Phase diagram for the system nepheline–silica with the intermedi...Figure 3.11 Phase diagram for the system forsterite–silica with the intermed...Figure 3.12 Three types of radioactive decay: alpha decay, beta decay, and e...Figure 3.13 Progressive change in the proportions of radioactive parent (N) ...Figure 3.14 Uranium–lead concordia plot (blue) showing sample ages as a func...Figure 3.15 Rubidium–strontium systematics, showing evolution in the composi...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Representative mineral crystals: representative mineral crystals:...Figure 4.2 (a) Two‐dimensional translation at right angles (t₁ and t₂) to ge...Figure 4.3 Five major types of rotational symmetry operations, viewed lookin...Figure 4.4 Two‐ and three‐dimensional motifs that illustrate the concept of ...Figure 4.5 Inversion through a center of symmetry (i) illustrated by the let...Figure 4.6 (a) Mirror plane (m) with the translation vector (t), contrasted ...Figure 4.7 (a) An axis of fourfold rotation (4). This contrasts with (b) an ...Figure 4.8 The 10 plane point groups defined by rotational and reflection sy...Figure 4.9 The five principal types of meshes or nets and their unit meshes ...Figure 4.10 A primitive unit cell and a long‐range space point lattice that ...Figure 4.11 Relationship between (a) atomic packing, (b) a unit cell, and (c...Figure 4.12 The 14 Bravais lattices and the six (or seven) crystal systems t...Figure 4.13 Conventional labeling of crystallographic axes, illustrating the...Figure 4.14 Crystallographic axes (positive ends labeled) and intersection a...Figure 4.15 A pyritohedron, a closed form in which all faces have the same g...Figure 4.16 Different types of dipyramid forms in the trigonal, tetragonal, ...Figure 4.17 (a) Common open forms: pedions, pinacoids, domes, sphenoids, and...Figure 4.18 Representative crystal faces that cut one, two or three crystall...Figure 4.19 Unit face (outlined in solid blue) in an orthorhombic crystal wi...Figure 4.20 Faces with different Weiss parameters on an orthorhombic crystal...Figure 4.21 (a) The darkened front crystal face possesses the Weiss paramete...Figure 4.22 Miller indices of various crystal faces on a cube depend on thei...Figure 4.23 Isometric octahedron outlined in blue possesses eight faces; the...Figure 4.24 Five common forms in the isometric system: (a) cube, (b) octahed...Figure 4.25 Common crystal forms in the tetragonal crystal system: (a) tetra...Figure 4.26 Common crystal forms in the hexagonal crystal system (hexagonal ...Figure 4.27 Common crystal forms in the trigonal system: (a) trigonal dipyra...Figure 4.28 Common crystal forms in the orthorhombic crystal system: (a) rho...Figure 4.29 Monoclinic crystal forms: (a) front, side, and basal pinacoids, ...Figure 4.30 Triclinic crystal forms: (a) front, side, and basal pinacoids, (...Figure 4.31 Examples of twinned crystals: (a) swallowtail twins in gypsum; (...Figure B4.1 (a) Frenkel defect, with a vacancy due to an ion displaced to th...Figure 4.32 (a) Perfect crystal lattice; (b) substitution defect; (c) inters...Figure 4.33 (a) Edge dislocation with an extra half plane of atoms; this is ...Figure 4.34 Two‐dimensional depiction of how an edge dislocation created by ...Figure 4.35 Three types of planar defect (shown in two dimensions): (a) inte...Figure B4.2 (a) Deformation map showing the significant role of omission def...Figure 4.36 Phase stability diagram showing the conditions under which graph...Figure 4.37 The closely similar structures of α‐ and β‐quartz.Figure 4.38 Variations in the order of minerals.Figure 4.39 (a) Hematite replacing pyrite; (b) chalcedony encrusting aragoni...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Individual crystal habits: A. equant, B. tabular, C. platy, D. pr...Figure 5.2 Crystal aggregate habits, clockwise from upper left: top row: fib...Figure 5.3 Crystal aggregate habits (left to right); top row: massive kaolin...Figure 5.4 Crystals with various percentages of bounding crystal faces. From...Figure 5.5 Types of cleavage exhibited by minerals.Figure 5.6 Examples of mineral cleavage (left to right). Top row: one set of...Figure 5.7 Fracture types, clockwise from upper left: conchoidal fracture in...Figure 5.8 Examples of mineral diaphaneity, top‐down. Left column: opaque mi...Figure 5.9 General relationships between light transmission (diaphaneity), l...Figure 5.10 Metallic and related lusters (opaque and nearly opaque minerals)...Figure 5.11 Nonmetallic lusters (nonopaque minerals) left to right; top row:...Figure 5.12 Clockwise from upper left: asterism in the “Star of India” sapph...Figure 5.13 Basic nesosilicate (orthosilicate) structure with isolated tetra...Figure 5.14 Basic unit of sorosilicate structure; pairs of silica tetrahedra...Figure 5.15 Triangular, square, and hexagonal ring structures in cyclosilica...Figure 5.16 Single‐chain inosilicate structure in pyroxene.Figure 5.17 Double‐chain silicate structure in amphiboles.Figure 5.18 Two‐dimensional sheet structure typical of phyllosilicate minera...Figure 5.19 (a) Two‐layer (t‐o or t‐b) structure of serpentine. (b) Three‐la...Figure 5.20 Three‐dimensional framework structures typical of tectosilicates...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The electrical (E, in red) and magnetic (B, in yellow) components...Figure 6.2 The continuous electromagnetic spectrum showing the wavelengths, ...Figure 6.3 Ordinary light vibrates in all directions perpendicular to the di...Figure 6.4 Incident light is reflected (blue arrow) from a surface between t...Figure 6.5 The dispersion of white light into different parts of the visible...Figure 6.6 A standard petrographic microscope with the major components iden...Figure 6.7 The essential steps in thin‐section preparation. (a) A chip with ...Figure 6.8 Plane polarized light photomicrograph of plutonic igneous rock (g...Figure 6.9 Plane polarized light from the polarizer is split into a fast ray...Figure 6.10 A modified version of the Michel–Levy Color Chart for interferen...Figure 6.11 Photomicrograph of a thin‐section of gabbro viewed in cross‐pola...Figure 6.12 Diagram shows the correspondence between extinction positions an...Figure 6.13 Sanidine crystal (clear, low birefringence) showing simple compo...Figure 6.14 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of microcline crystal that displa...Figure 6.15 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of diorite (see Figure 6.8 for pl...Figure 6.16 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of a volcanic rock. Large plagioc...Figure 6.17 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of a quartz crystal near the exti...Figure 6.18 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of perthite. Exsolved plagioclase...Figure 6.19 A cross‐section through a typical ellipsoidal indicatrix showing...Figure 6.20 Isotropic indicatrix shows sample ray paths “a” (parallel to Y‐a...Figure 6.21 (a) Prolate uniaxial indicatrix with a vertical long axis (blue)...Figure 6.22 Uniaxial positive indicatrix and three major types of section. (...Figure 6.23 Uniaxial positive indicatrix. The crystal c‐axis is vertical and...Figure 6.24 Uniaxial negative indicatrix. The crystal c‐axis is vertical and...Figure 6.25 Centered optic axis figures for uniaxial minerals display two is...Figure 6.26 Use of the gypsum plate for optic sign determinations of uniaxia...Figure 6.27 Use of the quartz wedge for optic sign determinations in mineral...Figure 6.28 The orientation of the uniaxial indicatrix (epsilon and omega vi...Figure 6.29 The general relationships between the three axes (X, Y, and Z) o...Figure 6.30 Diagram that depicts two circular sections (with refractive inde...Figure 6.31 Depiction of simplified versions of the positive and negative bi...Figure 6.32 An acute bisectrix figure for a biaxial mineral with a moderate ...Figure 6.33 (a) The appearance of a Bxa interference figure for a biaxial (+...Figure 6.34 (a) The appearance of a Bxa interference figure for a biaxial (+...Figure 6.35 Depicts centered optic axis figures in a position of maximum cur...Figure 6.36 Gypsum plate determination of optic sign, using a biaxial center...Figure 6.37 Bxo figure and the orientation of the optic normal and optic pla...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Common igneous minerals. Ferromagnesian minerals include olivine,...Figure 7.2 Rock classification based upon percentage of dark‐colored mineral...Figure 7.3 (a) Common phaneritic (coarse crystals) and aphanitic (fine cryst...Figure 7.4 Basalt porphyry containing euhedral and subhedral plagioclase cry...Figure 7.5 Granite pegmatite with K‐feldspar, beryl, quartz, and hornblende....Figure 7.6 Coarse‐grained phaneritic granite with early formed, euhedral to ...Figure 7.7 Aphanitic dacite from Mt. St. Helens 2004 dome eruption. Dacite c...Figure 7.8 (a) Porphyritic phaneritic texture with large pink K‐feldspar phe...Figure 7.9 Temperature–pressure relations depicting solid, solid plus liquid...Figure 7.10 Plagioclase phase diagram illustrating crystalline textures that...Figure 7.11 (a) Graph depicts viscosity versus temperature for five differen...Figure 7.12 Grain boundary alteration and crystal coarsening is produced by ...Figure 7.13 Snowflake obsidian displaying cristobalite seed crystals as well...Figure 7.14 Cross‐bedded vesicular pumice bomb ejected by the 1980 eruption ...Figure 7.15 At depth within the magma pluton, gases are dissolved within the...Figure 7.16 Amygdaloidal basalt in which vesicles have been infilled with qu...Figure 7.17 (a) IUGS classification for pyroclastic rocks based on diameter ...Figure 7.18 Angular volcanic blocks from explosive eruptions at Kilauea, Haw...Figure 7.19 Unwelded ashfall deposits from explosive volcanic eruptions.Figure 7.20 Partially welded ash flow tuff deposit.Figure 7.21 Densely welded tuff deposit.Figure 7.22 (a) The eight major elements in Earth's crust by weight percent,...Figure B7.1 Large ion lithophile elements contain an ionic charge/ionic radi...Figure 7.23 QAPF diagram for plutonic igneous rocks with >10% felsic mineral...Figure 7.24 Modal classification of gabbroic rocks based on proportions of t...Figure 7.25 Modal classification of ultramafic plutonic rocks based on the p...Figure 7.26 Simplified rock classification proposed by Glazner et al. (2019)...Figure 7.27 QAPF diagram for volcanic igneous rocks with >10% felsic mineral...Figure 7.28 (a) Alkali oxide versus silica (TAS) classification diagram for ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Pressure decrease accompanying uplift triggers melting as the upw...Figure 8.2 Note the lower temperature melting curve for wet basalt versus dr...Figure 8.3 Incompatible light rare elements (LREE) are progressively enriche...Figure 8.4 (a) Bowen's reaction minerals consisting of the ferromagnesian mi...Figure 8.5 Marginal accretion due to preferential cooling of the perimeter o...Figure 8.6 Gravitational separation in a magma chamber involves: crystal set...Figure 8.7 Filter pressing in which a magma chamber containing crystals and ...Figure 8.8 Liquid immiscibility occurs with the cooling of chicken soup. At ...Figure 8.9 Mafic gneiss xenolith entrained within a Proterozoic granite west...Figure 8.10 Olivine xenocrysts in vesicular basalt from appropriately named ...Figure 8.11 In analyzing dacite rocks that formed during the 2004–2005 Mt. S...Figure 8.12 (a) Coexisting 1540 Ma mafic (gray) and felsic (tan) magmas prod...Figure 8.13 AFM diagram illustrating the calc‐alkaline trend with progressiv...Figure 8.14 Generalized cross section illustrating relationships between ana...Figure 8.15 This Harker diagram shows that a relatively high titanium conten...Figure 8.16 Spider diagrams of Ricardo basalts collected in the vicinity of ...Figure 8.17 Cross‐sectional view of plutonic structures.Figure 8.18 White plagioclase‐rich anorthosite with dark, vertical pyroxene ...Figure 8.19 Horizontal basaltic sill enveloped by rhyolite ignimbrites provi...Figure 8.20 Cartoon cross section of a horizontal, planar sill, a laccolith ...Figure 8.21 Swarm of parallel, concordant white felsic veins intruding dark ...Figure 8.22 Ship Rock contains radiating mafic dikes emanating from the cent...Figure 8.23 Devil's Tower neck with columnar joints, Wyoming. Devils Tower o...Figure 8.24 Granitic dike cross cutting metamorphic rock at Mt. Rushmore....Figure 8.25 Three‐dimensional diagrams of en echelon, parallel, ring, and co...Figure 8.26 Sheeted dikes at Giant's Causeway, located on the Irish Sea coas...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 “Curtain of Fire” fissure eruption on Mauna Loa produces an elong...Figure 9.2 A central summit crater vent and flank eruption basalt lava flow ...Figure 9.3 Small parasitic volcano cones at the Mauna Kea summit. Subsurface...Figure 9.4 (a) Kīlauea caldera rim, Halema’uma’u crater, and Overlook pit cr...Figure 9.5 Flood basalts occur in both continental and oceanic environments ...Figure 9.6 (a) 12 m high “Pipe Organ” basalt columns, Giants Causeway, North...Figure 9.7 Glassy rinds and stretch marks on billowed pillow basalts that er...Figure 9.8 Black smoker from hydrothermal vent fields along the Kermadec Arc...Figure 9.9 Shield volcano map of the Big Island of Hawaii.Figure 9.10 On 6 June 2018, an explosion within Halema’uma’u crater blasted ...Figure 9.11 A 8 June 2018 eruption produced 70 m high lava fountains spoutin...Figure 9.12 Approximately 5 m tall spatter cone constructed by a lava founta...Figure 9.13 Approximately 5 m high, 100 m long spatter rampart in Kīlauea fr...Figure 9.14 Pele's tears collected downwind from Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii. No...Figure 9.15 Pele's blonde hair created by windblown streamlining of silica g...Figure 9.16 Thurston Lave Tube in Hawaii formed during fissure eruptions in ...Figure 9.17 Skylights into lava tube system in Hawaii caldera.Figure 9.18 Ropey, billowy pahoehoe flow and a skylight in Hawaii.Figure 9.19 An aa flow erupted on Kīlauea Volcano's East Rift Zone on 1 June...Figure B9.1 USGS block diagram illustrating magma flow from the summit calde...Figure B9.2 Kīlauea summit lava lake has been active from April 2018 to 2021...Figure B9.3 Kīlauea summit caldera subsidence as a result of Spring 2018 vol...Figure B9.4 Halema’uma’u crater experienced loss of its lava lake, summit de...Figure B9.5 9 August 2018 map denoting volcanic activity along the East Rift...Figure 9.20 On the Big Island of Hawaii: Mauna Loa (background), Mauna Kea (...Figure 9.21 Cinder cones of the San Francisco volcanic field in the foregrou...Figure B9.6 The volcano of Parícutin soon after its birth in 1943.Figure 9.22 Relative scale of composite volcanoes versus shield volcanoes....Figure 9.23 Block lava composed of trachyandesite (an extrusive rock, interm...Figure 9.24 Fin shaped spine at Mount St. Helens, February 2005.Figure 9.25 Mount St. Helens' lava dome as viewed on 22 August 1981 from 800...Figure 9.26 22 June 1980 explosive eruption of Mt. St. Helens sent pumice an...Figure 9.27 Loosely welded tuff from, of all places, Kīlauea Crater, Hawaii....Figure 9.28 Pyroclastic ash cloud and pyroclastic flow generated by dome col...Figure 9.29 Pyroclastic surges buried Plymouth on the Island of Montserrat f...Figure 9.30 Montserrat Lahar deposits from 1995, with building size blocks e...Figure B9.7 Hazard assessment map of Colombia's Nevado (Navada) del Ruiz vol...Figure B9.8 Armero buried by a lahar.Figure B9.9 Map of lahar flows and pyroclastic flow zones in the Tacoma‐Seat...Figure 9.31 Yellowstone's Quaternary eruptions include three of the four lar...Figure 9.32 Phreatomagmatic volcanic activity is particularly common in plac...Figure 9.33 Diamond Head Tuff Ring.Figure 9.34 A lake in the bottom of a tuff cone crater within the caldera at...Figure 9.35 In April of 1977, Ukinrek volcano experienced a 10 day phreatoma...Figure 9.36 Hot spring pools precipitate opaline (silica) sinter deposits wi...Figure 9.37 Beehive geyser at Yellowstone.Figure 9.38 (a) This fumarole at Kīlauea volcano is releasing sulfur gases w...Figure 9.39 Mass extinctions (gray) and flood basalts (red) over the past 30...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 (a) Major tectonic environments where igneous rocks occur.(b...Figure 10.2 (a) Cross section of ocean lithosphere. (b) Block diagram of mid...Figure 10.3 A spider diagram illustrates minor and trace element variations ...Figure B10.1. Over 2000 Proterozoic and younger ophiolite rocks were plotted...Figure B10.2. Th_N vs. Nb_N diagrams are used to identify basalt‐type and tect...Figure B10.3. A chondrite normalized (Ce/Yb) _N vs. (Dy/Yb)_N diagram is used ...Figure 10.4 Earth's convergent margins marked by ocean trenches.Figure 10.5 The steeply dipping Marianas‐type island arc subduction and the ...Figure 10.6 (a) Tholeiitic mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) display iron enric...Figure 10.7 (a) Ocean–ocean convergence producing island arc volcanoes and b...Figure B10.4 (a) Classification of some granitoid rocks enriched in plagiocl...Figure 10.8 (a) Modern back arc basins are concentrated in the Western Pacif...Figure 10.9 Major ophiolite, orogenic, and ocean basin sampling locations th...Figure 10.10 Zoned intrusion from the Blashke Islands complex, southeast Ala...Figure 10.11 Earth's large igneous provinces (LIP). CAMP, Central Atlantic M...Figure 10.12 The fractionation sequence occurring at ocean islands produces ...Figure 10.13 East African rift system represents the third leg to the Gulf o...Figure 10.14 Possible tectonic causes for continental rifts.Figure 10.15 Dual columnar basalt flows separated above and below by massive...Figure 10.16 Map indicating the location of layered mafic‐ultramafic intrusi...Figure 10.17 Close up of rhythmic layers within a channel structure in the S...Figure 10.18 Komatiite (a) Photomicrograph and (b) field photo of spinifex t...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Differential weathering between durable cliff and pillar‐forming...Figure 11.2 The relative roles of mechanical disintegration and chemical dec...Figure 11.3 Bryce Canyon, Utah showing pillars and windows formed by differe...Figure 11.4 Joints in anorthosite bedrock, Saranac Lake, New York.Figure 11.5 Sequential diagram (clockwise from top left) showing disintegrat...Figure 11.6 Biological weathering by tree root growth in Silurian dolostone,...Figure 11.7 The increase in surface area resulting from disintegration of ro...Figure 11.8 Spheroidal weathering of basaltic rock at Table Mountain, Golden...Figure B11.1 (a) Dissolution of carbonates by carbonated acidic groundwater....Figure 11.9 Distribution of karst dissolution features in the United States....Figure 11.10 Generalized erosion rates for wind (blue line) and water (red l...Figure 11.11 (a) The basic components of clay minerals: a single silica tetr...Figure 11.12 A three‐layer illite model depicting an aluminum octahedral lay...Figure 11.13 A three‐layer smectite clay, montmorillonite, in a partially ex...Figure 11.14 A four‐layer, 14 Å (0.14 μm) structure typical of chlorites, wi...Figure 11.15 (a) Paintings of horses using manganese oxides and hydroxides (...Figure 11.16 Proportions of the major components in average soil.Figure 11.17 Textural classification of soils.Figure 11.18 Layered soil produced by the disintegration and decomposition o...Figure 11.19 The ideal distribution of soil horizons in a fully developed wi...Figure 11.20 Examples of the major soil orders in the USDA‐NRSC soil taxonom...Figure 11.21 The major Atterberg classes of fine‐grained soils and the limit...Figure 11.22 Liquefaction produced when grains (blue) are separated; cohesiv...Figure B11.2 (a) Damage to the Van Norman (Lower San Fernando) Dam, 1971....Figure 11.23 (a) Collapsed apartment buildings in Nigata, Japan, after the 1...Figure 11.24 A Casagrande plot of soil sensitivity using the plasticity inde...Figure 11.25 Italy's famed Leaning Tower of Pisa, which was constructed on c...Figure 11.26 (a) Jurassic soil with plant root casts, buried by braided stre...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A simple model of the sedimentary cycle.Figure 12.2 (a) Thin laminations (above) and thicker beds (below) in the Jur...Figure 12.3 Major terrestrial, paralic, and marine depositional environments...Figure 12.4 Laminar and turbulent flow profiles; flow lines are dashed.Figure 12.5 Transition from laminar flow (background) to turbulent flow (for...Figure 12.6 Hjulstrom's diagram showing velocity conditions for entrainment ...Figure 12.7 Sediment loads in an idealized aqueous medium.Figure 12.8 A simplified version of the flow regime concept: (a) lower flow ...Figure 12.9 Current ripples. (a) Asymmetrical current ripples on a modern be...Figure 12.10 Slightly wavy‐crested sand waves or subaqueous dunes, Rio Hondo...Figure 12.11 Antidunes in phase with standing waves on a flow surface. Antid...Figure 12.12 Flow regimes with respect to mean flow velocity and grain size....Figure 12.13 Ripple migration by stoss‐side erosion and lee‐side deposition ...Figure 12.14 Progressive increases in trough climb rates due to bed aggradat...Figure 12.15 Climbing ripple laminations produced by down‐current (left to r...Figure 12.16 Tabular sets of planar cross‐strata. (a) Formation by aggrading...Figure 12.17 (a) Wedge sets and trough sets of festoon cross‐strata formed b...Figure 12.18 Plane bed transition. (a) View of a plane bed under shallow uni...Figure 12.19 Upper flow regime and antidunes. (a–d) Antidunes in laboratory ...Figure 12.20 (a) Deep water waves showing roughly circular orbitals whose di...Figure 12.21 Oscillatory flow and sand movement (left in a, then right in b)...Figure 12.22 (a) Oscillation ripple marks showing crest bifurcation, symmetr...Figure 12.23 (a) Oscillation ripples in the Carboniferous Horton Group, Nova...Figure 12.24 Interlayered ripple‐laminated sandstone and mudstone from tidal...Figure 12.25 (a) Block diagram showing hummocky cross‐stratification (HCS). ...Figure 12.26 Major modes of sediment transport by winds: creep, saltation, a...Figure 12.27 Velocity conditions for wind erosion, transportation by suspens...Figure 12.28 Typical loess deposit; note the paucity of stratification in co...Figure 12.29 Wind ripples on back‐beach sand dunes, Australia, with branchin...Figure 12.30 Major types of sand dunes: transverse, barchan, parabolic, star...Figure 12.31 Formation of eolian cross‐strata by dune migration. (a) Dune sh...Figure B12.1 Map of West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and East Antarctic Ice S...Figure 12.32 Erosion of bedrock by glacial plucking and glacial abrasion.Figure 12.33 Striated bedrock surface in Cambrian dolostones, northwest New ...Figure 12.34 (a) Glacial till, Pleistocene, Ohio; note the polymictic compos...Figure 12.35 Glacial varves from the Pleistocene, Maine: coarser, lighter co...Figure 12.36 Large glacial dropstone and other ice‐rafted debris from the Pl...Figure 12.37 (a) Mud flow with matrix strength sufficient to suspend boulder...Figure 12.38 (a) Debris flow deposit above an erosion surface, southern Utah...Figure 12.39 Turbidity current in a laboratory showing the head and main bod...Figure 12.40 (a) Model of a turbidity current with a head, main body, and ta...Figure 12.41 (a) Classic Bouma sequence showing an erosional base overlain b...Figure 12.42 Sole marks on bed bases. (a) Flute marks, Austen Glen Formation...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Wentworth–Udden grade scale with phi (φ) equivalents.Figure 13.2 Three‐component diagrams giving the textural names of detrital s...Figure 13.3 Gravelstones. (a) A matrix‐supported framework with gravel parti...Figure 13.4 Typical histogram of weight percent sediment versus phi size cla...Figure 13.5 Typical frequency curve for weight percent versus phi size class...Figure 13.6 Typical cumulative frequency curve for cumulative weight percent...Figure 13.7 Cumulative curves showing the median (φ₅₀) and different degrees...Figure 13.8 Diagram for the determination of sorting by visual comparison, u...Figure 13.9 Grain shapes defined from a, b, and c dimensions, where a ≥ b ≥ ...Figure 13.10 Imbricated clasts. (a) Tertiary, Montana, flow from left to rig...Figure 13.11 Diagram for the determination of rounding in grains of varying ...Figure 13.12 (a) Oligomictic gravel with rounded gravel and a clast‐supporte...Figure B13.1 Geological map of South Island, New Zealand, showing the Alpine...Figure 13.13 Sandstone classification of Folk (1974). F = feldspar; L = lith...Figure 13.14 Four‐component classification sandstones. F = feldspar; L = lit...Figure 13.15 (a) QFL (quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments) diagram after Dick...Figure B13.2 Large‐scale cross‐strata, Navajo sandstone, Jurassic, Utah.Figure 13.16 Reduction spots around organic particles in red–purple mudrock....Figure 13.17 Diagram showing the general relationships between color, organi...Figure 13.18 Bentonite, with its typical, lumpy popcorn‐like appearance, Mow...Figure 13.19 Oil shale with a dark color that results from its oil content....Figure 13.20 Organic‐rich sapropel layer (middle) between lighter colored la...Figure 13.21 Idealized compaction and porosity curves for well‐sorted quartz...Figure 13.22 Major varieties of long grain contacts produced by diagenetic p...Figure 13.23 Syntaxial quartz overgrowths (arrows) and blocky calcite cement...Figure 13.24 Solubility of calcite as a function of dissolved CO₂ content an...Figure 13.25 Photomicrograph of calcite cemented sandstone with poikiloptic ...Figure 13.26 Images of concretions. (a) A nucleus and concentric structure i...Figure 13.27 Nodules. (a) Three flint nodules in limestone.(b) Septarian...Figure 13.28 Geodes showing banded chalcedony rims and quartz (plus bladed g...Figure 13.29 Liesegang bands in a sandstone block; note the truncation again...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Compositions of low magnesium and high magnesium calcites.Figure 14.2 (a) Shell beach, Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, Australia: an ...Figure 14.3 (a) Modern ooids, Joulter Cay, Bahamas.(b) Thin section of o...Figure 14.4 (a) Rounded intraclasts, Jurassic, Sundance Formation, Wyoming. ...Figure 14.5 Idealized aggregate limeclasts: (a) grapestone, (b) botryoidal a...Figure 14.6 Peloids of various shapes in grain‐supported framework, with int...Figure 14.7 Carbonate mud in thin section, under plane light: (a) micrite, (...Figure 14.8 Dunham's classification of limestones.Figure 14.9 Modifications of Dunham’s classification.Figure 14.10 Folk's basic classification of carbonate rocks.Figure 14.11 Folk’s textural classification of carbonates.Figure 14.12 Tidal flat depositional environments; Bahamas.Figure 14.13 Idealized sandy beach cross‐section illustrating major depositi...Figure B14.1 (a) Major reef and carbonate buildup organisms through time. Ma...Figure 14.14 Major environments in modern reefs.Figure 14.15 Major depositional environments on a carbonate ramp.Figure 14.16 Major carbonate environments on a rimmed platform.Figure 14.17 Sketch that shows the distribution of the major zones in which ...Figure 14.18 Stylolites with a “toothed” pattern (below the penny) and a thi...Figure 14.19 Moldic porosity, showing a dissolved gastropod shell, later fil...Figure 14.20 Marine, isopachous rim cement (brownish) on grains with pore sp...Figure 14.21 Syntaxial calcite in optical continuity on an echinoderm spine....Figure 14.22 Environments of evaporite formation in modern sabkhas and the c...Figure 14.23 (a) Nodular gypsum, Triassic Mercia Group, Watchet Beach, Engla...Figure B14.2 Distribution of Miocene evaporites in the Mediterranean Basin....Figure 14.24 Sketch models for large barred basin evaporite formation: (a) s...Figure 14.25 Cross‐section and sketch map view of an idealized evaporite bas...Figure 14.26 Conditions under which modern siliceous oozes accumulate below ...Figure 14.27 Bedded “ribbon” chert in outcrops. (a) Radiolarian chert, Creta...Figure 14.28 Chert nodules. (a) Flint nodules in Kalkberg limestone, Devonia...Figure 14.29 (a) Siliceous sinter precipitated around hot springs, Yellowsto...Figure 14.30 Banded iron formation, Vermillion Range, Minnesota.Figure 14.31 Manganese nodule.Figure 14.32 Black phosphate layer, Phosphoria Formation, Permian, Wyoming....Figure 14.33 Major ranks of coal produced during progressive coalification, ...Figure 14.34 Peat and the major ranks of coal derived from it during coalifi...Figure 14.35 Formation of crude oil, wet gas, dry gas and kerogens during pe...Figure 14.36 Major types of petroleum traps: (top) structural traps produced...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 (a) Diagram showing temperature and pressure ranges of diagenesi...Figure 15.2 An undeformed cube (above) subjected to uniform stress changes v...Figure 15.3 Common metamorphic rocks. (a) Non‐foliated rocks include marble,...Figure 15.4 Kyanite–andalusite–sillimanite stability fields.Figure 15.5 Photomicrograph of a quartz porphyroblast that has experienced e...Figure 15.6 Meteor Crater Arizona.Figure 15.7 Brittle faulting produces cataclasites and high‐strain rate pseu...Figure 15.8 Cross‐section of contact metamorphism as granite intrudes limest...Figure 15.9 Cross‐section depicting chemical reactions at mid ocean ridges....Figure 15.10 Compressive stress produces foliations typically at a high angl...Figure 15.11 Dynamothermal metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries.

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Force acting on a two‐dimensional plane can be depicted as a vec...Figure 16.2 Three‐dimensional block diagrams illustrating the three main typ...Figure 16.3 (a) Uniform stress in which the three principal stress axes are ...Figure B16.1 Teeter‐totter analogy of: (a) a principal plane oriented perpen...Figure 16.4 Principle stresses directed toward a cube. Note that shear stres...Figure 16.5 (a) Non‐uniform stresses transform a sphere into (b) an ellipsoi...Figure 16.6 Summary diagram of the four types of rock deformation. Figure 16.7 (a) Homogeneous strain in which parallel lines remain parallel, ...Figure 16.8 Photomicrograph of a ~5 mm snowball garnet that has been rotated...Figure 16.9 Illustration depicting X, Y, and Z strain axes. Figure 16.10 The equidimensional cylinder in stage A represents an undeforme...Figure 16.11 Diagram illustrating deformation of: (a) an initially undeforme...Figure B16.2 (a) Illustration of Poisson's ratio in which material “fattenin...Figure 16.12 Elastic behavior is depicted on idealized stress–strain graphs....Figure 16.13 (a) Idealized plastic deformation initiates after a critical st...Figure 16.14 Plastic deformation proceeds through microscopic intracrystalli...Figure 16.15 (a) Quartz pebbles of the Purgatory Conglomerate experienced di...Figure 16.16 Stylolites in a marble slab form by concentration of insoluble ...Figure 16.17 Cobble creep occurs through moderate to high temperature atom a...Figure 16.18 (a) Idealized rock response to stress in which low stress level...Figure 16.19 Brittle–ductile transition within Earth.Figure 16.20 (a) Competence contrast results in both brittle and ductile beh...Figure 16.21 General types of structures produced by brittle and ductile def...Figure 16.22 Block diagrams of (a) two conjugate normal dip‐slip faults, (b)...Figure 16.23 Nonsystematic, random veins in metabasalt, Bou Azzer, Morocco....Figure 16.24 Parallel, regularly spaced systematic veins in competent metaqu...Figure 16.25 En echelon quartz vein array that formed in response to sinistr...Figure 16.26 Systematic, parallel blocky spar quartz and feldspar folded gra...Figure 16.27 Fibrous calcite veins indicating sinistral shear within metavol...Figure 16.28 (a) Major components of folds. (b) Terms used to describe the f...Figure 16.29 Idealized block diagrams illustrating (a) syncline; (b) anticli...Figure 16.30 Development of superposed folds. (a) Initial folding event with...Figure 16.31 Transposed folds in metamorphosed ironstone in which “rootless”...Figure 16.32 Parasitic folds produce Z (clockwise rotation), M (symmetrical ...Figure 16.33 Tectonic mélange displays metabasalt encased within a muddy mat...Figure 16.34 Intense deformation can result in localized melting and the dev...Figure 16.35 Random, linear, and planar fabric elements.Figure 16.36 Note the cleavage and bedding relationships. The axial planar c...Figure 16.37 This figure illustrates: (a) Intersection lineations formed by ...Figure 16.38 Pencil cleavage from slate within the Anti‐Atlas Mountains, Mor...Figure 16.39 Crenulation lineations in phyllite, Newport, Rhode Island.Figure 16.40 Stretching lineations in hornblende in metamorphosed granite, B...Figure 16.41 Slickenlines on exposed portion of the San Andreas Fault, San F...Figure 16.42 Lake Superior ironstones display plunging folds and steeply inc...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 (a) Photomicrograph of hornfelsic texture with equant crystals s...Figure 17.2 Photomicrograph of granoblastic texture with equant calcite crys...Figure 17.3 The Proterozoic age Baraboo metaquartzite in Wisconsin contains ...Figure 17.4 Alexander Hamilton’s marble grave in Old Trinity Church graveyar...Figure 17.5 Granoblastic skarn containing wollastonite, tremolite, and garne...Figure 17.6 Quartz (monomictic) metabreccia with angular gravel size grains....Figure 17.7 (a) Exposed fault in Trifya Basin, Bou Azzer‐El Graara, Morocco....Figure 17.8 Pseudotachylite formed in a ductile shear zone within leucogabbr...Figure 17.9 (a) Shatter impact cone produced by meteorite impact on limeston...Figure 17.10 Black, glassy, lightweight anthracite coal displaying conchoida...Figure 17.11 Stretched pebble conglomerate in which Purgatory Conglomerate c...Figure 17.12 Green serpentinite.Figure B17.1 Cross section showing possible development of greenstone belts ...Figure 17.13 Dark colored amphibolite derived from mafic protolith.Figure 17.14 Eclogite with red garnet and green omphacite.Figure 17.15 (a) Slate with flat planar cleavage. (b) Dark gray slate with f...Figure 17.16 (a) Photomicrograph depicts dark, phyllosilicate phyllite folia...Figure 17.17 Four varieties of aluminosilicate‐rich schists are displayed: (...Figure 17.18 Hand sample photograph of a garnet schist.Figure 17.19 Gneissic banding defined by white quartz‐feldspar layers and da...Figure 17.20 Augen gneiss with elliptical to lenticular feldspar porphyrobla...Figure 17.21 Contorted migmatites exposed in Rocky Mountain National Park, C...Figure 17.22 Folded, banded ironstones from the Precambrian Lake Superior be...Figure 17.23 (a) Deformed rock displaying protomylonite and ultramylonite la...Figure 17.24 (a) Cross‐section indicating σ grain tail complex in dextral sh...Figure 17.25 (a) Cross section illustrating dextral shear as indicated by a ...Figure 17.26 A set of synthetic fractures, all of which are inclined to the ...Figure 17.27 Outcrop‐scale antithetic en echelon, antithetic fractures in me...Figure 17.28 S‐C structures in a dextral shear zone.Figure 17.29 S‐C structures in Proterozoic mylonitic granite from Colorado. ...Figure 17.30 S‐C structures in phyllosilicate‐rich mylonite. Note the metamo...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Barrovian zones of metamorphism based on index minerals of Scotl...Figure 18.2 Common metamorphic facies depicted on a temperature and depth/pr...Figure 18.3 Common metapelite and metabasite minerals in greenschist, epidot...Figure 18.4 Generalized cross‐section indicating depressed temperatures in t...Figure 18.5 Eurasian–African view of coesite, diamond, and majorite ultra hi...Figure 18.6 Five metamorphic facies series grouped into three (A–C) trends b...Figure 18.7 Five metamorphic facies series defined by Myashiro (1961) and ot...Figure 18.8 Generalized geologic map of northern Scotland showing Barrovian ...Figure 18.9 Metamorphic facies map of Japan's Sanbagawa belt.Figure 18.10 Metamorphic facies map of California's Franciscan belt.Figure 18.11 Phase rule as applied to the Al₂SiO₅ polymorph mineral group.Figure 18.12 Equilibrium assemblage grid for minerals derived from politic p...Figure 18.13 Generalized ternary diagram with X, Y, and Z representing end m...Figure 18.14 ACF ternary diagram for protolith composition where: A = (Al₂O₃Figure 18.15 ACF ternary diagram illustrating approximate chemical compositi...Figure 18.16 A'KF ternary diagram indicating approximate chemical compositio...Figure 18.17 AFM ternary diagram illustrating approximate chemical compositi...Figure 18.18 Ternary CMS diagram illustrating approximate chemical compositi...Figure 18.19 A simplified CMS ternary diagram illustrating common minerals a...Figure 18.20 (a) ACF ternary diagram in which the different chemical composi...Figure 18.21 Ternary diagrams for rocks derived from basites (mafic) and cal...Figure 18.22 Cross‐section view of divergent and convergent plate boundaries...Figure 18.23 Cross‐section illustrating trench, accretionary prism wedge, fo...Figure 18.24 Franciscan mélange with a mixture of blueschist and greenschist...Figure 18.25 Simplified development of an ophiolite by obduction of ocean li...Figure 18.26 Cross section of high‐pressure mineral assemblage within the su...Figure 18.27 Cross‐section showing Mesozoic subduction of ocean crust and de...Figure 18.28 Cross‐section of paired (dual) metamorphic belt at convergent m...Figure 18.29 (a) Map view of pull‐apart basin developing by tension along a ...Figure 18.30 Mesozoic (~100 Ma) convergent margin activity in the western Un...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 (a) Block diagram illustrating tectonic locations where VMS depo...Figure 19.2 Global distribution of known land‐based VMS deposits (Mosier et ...Figure 19.3 Global distribution of modern hydrothermal vents and related pol...Figure 19.4 (a) Generalized geologic map of the Keweenaw rift, which is part...Figure 19.5 Geologic map of the Duluth Complex, part of the Keweenaw rift, i...Figure 19.6 World map displaying major PGE ore deposits.Figure 19.7 (a) Cross section of porphyry ore deposits illustrating metamorp...Figure 19.8 This global map illustrates 150 of the major porphyry deposits. ...Figure 19.9 (a) Copper and quartz vein within metamorphosed basalt.Figure 19.10 (a) Known LCT pegmatite deposits on Earth, color coded with res...Figure 19.11 Cobalt mine in greenstone belt in Bou Azzer Morocco.Figure 19.12 (a) Cross section illustrating skarns developing in association...Figure 19.13 (a) Global production of Iron ore in 2019. Image authored by PM...Figure 19.14 Algoma‐type deposits that form due to hydrothermal fluids inter...Figure 19.15 Cross section of Sedex deposits formed by an external, magmatic...Figure 19.16 Global map of major sedex deposits in continental settings. Not...Figure 19.17 Cross section of Canada's Robb Lake Zn‐Pb sulfide bodies in bre...Figure 19.18 Global map of the major MVT deposits. Note that these deposits ...Figure 19.19 Precious metals derived from magmatic veins are exposed, eroded...Figure 19.20 Roll‐front, tongue‐shaped uranium deposits form in stream chann...Figure 19.21 Intense weathering of peridotite igneous rock concentrates iron...Figure 19.22 Global map of bauxite deposits from karstic and laterite source...Figure 19.23 Some of the mineral commodities of which the USA imports >50%....Figure 19.24 Major import sources of nonfuel mineral commodities for which t...