Читать книгу When Food Is Comfort - Julie M. Simon - Страница 15
ОглавлениеOne of the most striking peculiarities of the human brain is the great development of the frontal lobes — they are much less developed in other primates and hardly evident at all in other mammals. They are the part of the brain that grows and develops most after birth.
— Oliver Sacks, An Anthropologist on Mars
It’s your mind that gets you into trouble when it comes to overeating. On your way home from another exhausting day at work, you can’t stop thinking about pizza, so you stop and buy one. You did well at managing your eating all day, and you had the best of intentions when making that last stop at the supermarket to pick up some fruit and vegetables. But somehow that cheesecake sampler ended up in your cart. You know these foods aren’t the healthiest choices and that buying more than a serving size of any of them isn’t wise. You rationalize that you’ll just have one piece of pizza and one slice of cheesecake and save the rest for later. And that Zumba class you were going to take — well, you’re just too tired tonight, but you’ll go tomorrow for sure.
When tomorrow comes and your friend invites you to dinner, you accept the invitation without hesitation and once again skip the dance class. After all, you still have many more days this week to fit in exercise. On the drive to the restaurant, you promise yourself that you’ll order soup and salad — you almost don’t remember ordering the cheesy noodle dish and that second glass of wine. What happened between making that promise to yourself and now? Truly, you want to do better, but something always gets in the way.
It’s your brain. And it’s not your fault! When we have not received consistent and sufficient emotional nurturance during our early years, we are at greater risk of seeking it from external sources, like food and alcohol, later in life. Many of us have been raised to interpret undisciplined behavior patterns, like overeating and underexercising, as a sign of character weakness or laziness and a general lack of control. This kind of judgmental labeling is not only inaccurate — many overeaters I work with are extremely disciplined in many areas of their lives — but also unhelpful. Disordered eating patterns represent resourceful survival strategies for regulating emotional or physical arousal (or lack of arousal), coping with adverse experiences, and increasing pleasure. Understanding this takes the shame out of recovery and shows us the way forward.
When you have a strong urge to detach from unpleasant emotions or bodily sensations, turn off painful thoughts, distract yourself, numb out, and comfort, soothe, and pleasure yourself with food, the part of you that turns to food is very, very young. You can’t manage or modify your behavior with logical arguments, because that very young part of you doesn’t respond to reason. You are under the influence of an emotionally dominant part of your brain about the shape and size of an almond, called the amygdala (pronounced uh-MIG-duh-luh).
This part of the brain is like your central alarm system, and it plays a key role in the way you respond emotionally and behaviorally to perceived threats (in this case, a stressful day at work). This young part of you wants what she wants, when she wants it. She doesn’t care about health or weight consequences. She doesn’t care about fitting into the outfit you bought last month. She lives in this moment, and right now she is unsatisfied and demanding. Her motto is “I don’t care; I want it now.”
The mid to lower part of your brain (the limbic region), which houses the amygdala, runs from the brain stem, at the top of your neck, to about the level of the bridge of your nose. Although it’s already well developed at birth, it’s sometimes referred to as primitive, because it’s responsible for regulating basic functions like breathing, heart rate, digestion, and wake and sleep cycles. It’s ready at a moment’s notice to activate the body’s fight, flight, or freeze response. This part of the brain allows you to act before you think. It’s responsible for strong emotions, impulses, and instincts, like the intense fear you feel and your quick reaction when your toddler runs out into a busy street, or the panic that sets in when you see a coyote cross your front lawn and you frantically search for your cat. This part of the brain is the source of our reactivity, and while it’s lifesaving at times, it can also get us into trouble.
The upstairs part of your brain comes online later in development. This outer layer, called the cortex, runs from your forehead to the back of your head, covering the lower brain, and it doesn’t reach full maturity until we’re in our mid-twenties. The cortex, and more specifically an area called the prefrontal cortex, is part of our self-regulation system, and it depends on properly working connections and input from lower parts of the brain. This area of the brain is responsible for cognitive, emotional, and relational skills: it helps you regulate your emotions, observe your thoughts, take in insight, adjust your behaviors, learn from your mistakes, stay flexible and adaptive, make wise decisions and plans, and feel empathy and compassion for yourself and others.
This part of the brain allows you to think before you act and to evaluate emotionally driven impulses — like the urge to eat more than a couple of slices of pizza or buy an entire cheesecake sampler. With normal development and sufficient early nurturance, integrative circuits grow and strengthen between our upstairs and downstairs brain regions. We gradually develop the ability to apply mature, top-down control strategies that help us regulate our behaviors. When the downstairs part of the brain sends out signals to grab the pizza and the cheesecake, the upstairs part might remind us about an upcoming social event and the outfit we want to fit into. It might help us access a nurturing, limit-setting adult voice that reminds us we can have pizza and cheesecake if we like, but it’s best to buy single servings. This area of the brain can become compromised, however, by insufficient, stressful, or adverse early experiences with caregivers. It may feel inaccessible when we are experiencing intense emotions and stress, especially if we are fatigued or sleep deprived.
Self-regulation, or the ability to manage our emotions, moods, thoughts, impulses, and behaviors, is a developmental achievement. Life experiences activate certain pathways in and between different regions of the brain, strengthening existing connections and creating new ones. Developing and connecting, or integrating, the proper brain circuitry for self-regulation requires certain conditions. In his book The Developing Mind, Daniel Siegel states that “optimal relationships are likely to stimulate the growth of integrative fibers in the brain, whereas neglectful and abusive relationships specifically inhibit the healthy growth of neural integration in the young child. Experience early in life may be especially crucial in organizing the way the basic regulatory structures of the brain develop.”
In order to curb our emotional reactivity and wayward impulses and make wise decisions about food, we need the upstairs brain to step in and perform its duties as the captain of the ship. When our self-regulation circuitry is working well and all parts of the brain have open communication, we find ourselves less dependent on external supports, such as food or chemicals, to calm us down, lift us up, or get us going.
The Triune Brain
This simple model of the brain describes the three areas of the brain that are designed to process information separately and to function as a whole. (Triune means “three in one.”)
The brain stem regulates basic processes like heart rate and respiration, as well as states of arousal. This area receives input from the body and communicates with the areas above it.
The limbic region is the emotional brain, responsible for our basic drives and emotions, and it is home to the emotional-processing amygdala and the hippocampus, which is responsible for converting our feelings and experiences into words and memory.
The cortex is the thinking brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and relational skills and helping to coordinate the connections among all brain regions.
Left Brain, Right Brain
The brain is organized into lateral as well as vertical regions. Like the upstairs and downstairs regions of the brain, the left and right sides of the brain need open channels of communication. The right side develops earlier than the left and communicates more directly with the lower brain areas and the body. This side of the brain receives emotional information: it is home to our emotions, intuition, gut feelings, imagery, nonverbal communication, and autobiographical memory. As very young children, we’re right-brain dominant: we live completely in the moment and have little concern for concepts like right and wrong or following the rules. Our left brain, responsible for logic, language, and linear thinking, develops a bit later.
Generally, the two sides of the brain work together fairly smoothly, even in people who seem to favor one side over the other. However, traumatic memories appear to activate the right hemisphere and deactivate the left. One of the results of this imbalance is that when something reminds us of a traumatic event, we can feel as though the event were happening in the present, not the past. Unable to access our rational left brain, we may feel flooded and overwhelmed by our feelings. At times like these, there’s a high probability that our emotional response will be bigger than the crime and that we’ll resort to a maladaptive coping behavior in an attempt to stop the emotional overload and restore tranquility. We may grab our favorite comfort foods and overeat. We might ignore the alarm messages from our emotional brain, even though our bodies are registering the threat, and deny the existence of our feelings. But the right side of the brain keeps working, as stress hormones signal the muscles to prepare for fight, flight, or freeze. Eventually, the physical effects on the body will demand attention.
Similarly, when we function predominantly from our left brain, we cannot harness the full potential of both sides working together. Cut off from our emotions and intuition and the richness and creativity they offer, our lives can feel dull and unsatisfying. We may find that delectable foods offer the excitement and bliss our left-brained lives seem to be missing.
Brain Chemistry and Overeating
Consistent and sufficient parental nurturing in infancy and childhood plays a major role not only in the normal development of the structure of the brain regions and circuits, but in the brain’s chemical communication systems as well. Brain chemicals, called neurotransmitters, allow messages to pass from one cell to the next and are essential for communication between brain cells. Brain chemicals regulate our mood and mental energy, alertness, focus, and calmness. The quality of our lives is highly determined by our brain chemistry.
There is a specific area of the upstairs brain, called the orbitofrontal cortex, that is heavily involved in our ability to regulate our emotions, impulses, and behaviors. This area has a dense network of connections to the lower brain structures, where our most primitive emotions, like rage and fear, are generated, and the brain stem, where our physiological body states are managed. This area of the brain is at the center of our reward and motivation system, and it contains a large supply of the reward chemicals — endorphins and dopamine — associated with soothing, calm, joy, and pleasure.
Endorphins: Molecules of Emotion
Endorphins alleviate physical and emotional pain and facilitate emotional bonding. If you’ve ever had a serious injury and didn’t feel pain immediately, you can thank your endorphins for that — and for the deeply relaxed and calm feeling that comes after lovemaking, because a flood of endorphins is released during orgasm. (Leave it to nature to make sure the propagation of the species is an enjoyable process!) Endorphins are also the brain chemicals responsible for “runner’s high,” the euphoric state some runners describe after an extended period of aerobic exercise. Some overeaters are also overexercisers, and this tendency may be due in part to a subconscious effort to boost low endorphin levels.
Researchers have identified more than twenty different types of endorphins. In addition to alleviating emotional and physical pain, these chemicals are involved in the regulation of blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and body temperature. We have endorphin receptors (think of these as the loading docks of your cells) in different types of cells throughout our bodies, playing different roles. For example, in the nervous system, endorphins act as painkillers and tranquilizers, whereas in our mouths, they diminish secretions and lead to the familiar “cotton-mouth” sensation.
Endorphins also govern our attachment instinct. A mother’s attention and loving presence trigger an endorphin release in an infant’s brain. Nature didn’t forget the brains of mothers, either: mothers experience huge endorphin surges when they nurture their babies. Conversely, if a mother or other caregiver fails to respond adequately to an infant’s needs on a consistent basis, endorphins are not released in the baby’s brain. She is left to self-soothe with alternative coping mechanisms like thumb sucking, rocking, or shutting down and tuning out.
When our levels of this natural pain reliever (named for its resemblance to morphine) are low, we may find that we are highly sensitive to both emotional and physical pain. We seem to feel pain more than others do. Perhaps we cry at the drop of a hat. Stress can deplete our scanty levels of endorphins even further.
Alcohol and drugs (especially opiates), as well as drug-like components in foods such as refined flours and sugars, can attach to our brain-cell receptor sites and take the place of our natural brain chemicals. As our brain perceives these receptor sites as full, it produces less of our natural chemicals. This partly explains the vicious cycle many overeaters know so well: cravings, indulgence, relief, and more cravings.
Dopamine: Energy and Focus
Our main energizing brain chemical is called dopamine. It’s like our natural caffeine. It promotes a sense of satisfaction, drives assertiveness, and pumps up our libido. Dopamine keeps us feeling energized, upbeat, and alert. By helping us focus and concentrate, it plays a role in the learning of new behaviors. Pleasurable experiences such as dinner with a dear friend, a good tennis match, or the anticipation of a vacation tend to elevate dopamine levels.
Joyful, nurturing interactions with primary caregivers stimulate the development of dopamine receptors in the infant’s brain. Early separations, insufficient emotional and physical attention, or regular stressed interactions with caregivers can cause significant alterations in the dopamine system, including reduced dopamine production as well as a diminished number of dopamine receptors.
If you’re low in this important brain chemical, you may experience low or flat moods, including depression. You may have difficulty getting out of bed in the morning or tend to sleep long hours. You may find it challenging to concentrate and focus on tasks. Your motivation, drive, and enthusiasm for life may be low, and you may have difficulty activating yourself. You may experience boredom or apathy more often than you’d like. You may feel easily overwhelmed and inclined to procrastinate. Your brain and your life may feel cluttered.
Studies have demonstrated that 12 to 40 percent of adults in the United States are born with a gene that reduces the number of dopamine receptors. A diminished number of dopamine receptors in the brain appears to play a role in the diagnosis of attention deficit disorder. People with fewer dopamine receptors are at greater risk of engaging in substance abuse, compulsive gambling, internet and sex addiction, and compulsive overeating. Some overeaters have been born with an altered gene that also results in lower production of dopamine.
When your dopamine levels are low, you may be attracted to stimulating substances like coffee, tea, soda, chocolate, tobacco, and street drugs like amphetamines and cocaine. You may also have cravings for sweets, starches, alcohol, marijuana, and foods and drinks sweetened with aspartame. Foods high in fat, like fried foods, chocolate, cheese, and meat also increase dopamine levels, so if these are your go-to comfort foods, low levels of this chemical may be playing a role. And, as with endorphins, when our brains perceive our dopamine receptor sites as full, whether from drug-like foods or beverages or from actual brain chemicals, our natural production declines. We’re back to that vicious cycle.
Serotonin: A Sense of Well-Being
Another key brain chemical is serotonin. When you have enough of this important chemical, your mood tends to be stable (assuming your other brain chemicals are in balance). Animal studies have demonstrated that parental nurturing determines the production of serotonin. Even minor imbalances in the availability of this chemical can manifest in behaviors such as fearfulness and hyperactivity.
Serotonin deficiency is by far the most common cause of mood problems in the United States. Low serotonin levels can make you feel anxious, panicky, irritable, agitated, cranky, constantly worried, or depressed. You may act impulsively, obsessively, and perfectionistically. Your thoughts are likely to be negative, fearful, and critical. You may experience phobias, fibromyalgia, migraines, PMS, and tension in your jaw. You may suffer digestive difficulties, since a large percentage of the serotonin in your body is in your gut (which has been called the second brain). You might find it difficult to get a good night’s sleep, as serotonin is converted to melatonin, the so-called sleep hormone. Your mood may worsen with season and daylight changes, a condition called seasonal affective disorder.
Low serotonin levels play a role in food obsession, compulsive binge eating, and exercise addiction. If you find that you’re drawn to high-carbohydrate snacks in the late afternoon and evening, it may be because your serotonin production is dropping. Daylight, physical exercise, and foods containing the amino acid L-tryptophan increase serotonin levels in the brain and the body. You may crave dairy products high in this substance, like ice cream, hot chocolate, pudding, or a warm glass of milk. Marijuana and alcohol can enhance serotonin levels, and this explains why you might find yourself wanting to unwind, as the sun goes down, by smoking pot or drinking wine, beer, or your favorite cocktail. Unfortunately, overuse of marijuana and alcohol can lead to addiction and end up inhibiting serotonin production.
GABA: Soothing Emotional Eruptions
GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, is probably the least-known brain chemical. It is our natural Valium, and it helps us feel relaxed. It’s called an inhibitory neurotransmitter because it turns off certain kinds of brain reactions, such as the production of excitatory chemicals like adrenaline. GABA helps to calm our emotional storms without recruiting our brain-stem areas into the all-too-familiar fight, flight, or freeze reactions. If the integrative fibers that connect our upstairs and downstairs brains are working properly, this brain chemical is released when we experience stress.
When GABA levels are low, we may experience mood disturbances and cravings for alcohol, drugs, and comfort food — particularly substances that calm us down, such as alcohol, marijuana, sedatives, sweets, and fatty foods.
Glutamine: Sweet Cravings and Good Digestion
There is one final key player worth mentioning that affects mood and food cravings. Amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins. Glutamine, the most abundant amino acid in the muscle and plasma of humans, is a stimulating, excitatory organic substance that acts like a brain chemical. Traditionally considered a nonessential amino acid, it now appears to be an essential nutrient in the body’s response to stress, injury, or illness. It is critical for optimal brain function, boosting mood, increasing alertness, and enhancing memory. It also increases libido and facilitates digestion.
Our brains can use glutamine as an emergency substitute fuel, in place of glucose, when we haven’t eaten or when our blood sugar levels are low. If we have enough of this important amino acid, we are less likely to hit the candy machine when our blood-sugar levels drop. When we are under stress, the right amount of glutamine can stop our sugar cravings and save our adrenal glands from overworking. The brains of sugar addicts and alcoholics tend to be low in this important organic substance.
Circuits, Synapses, Chemicals, and Environment
Whether because of insufficient early nurturance, inherited deficiencies, or lifestyle factors, many overeaters have brain chemistry imbalances that make them more susceptible to the energizing, soothing, and calming effects of particular foods and more prone to overeating them.
For some overeaters, a few simple lifestyle changes can help correct these imbalances. I discuss these in further detail in The Emotional Eater’s Repair Manual. Eating more unprocessed, whole plant foods (especially raw vegetables and foods high in amino acids and essential fatty acids) and reducing your intake of processed foods, alcohol, and stimulants like caffeine are a good start. Exercise is critical to good health, and aerobic exercise, in particular, releases mood-enhancing chemicals and promotes the growth of brain cells.
Good sleep is important, as is good sleep hygiene — habits conducive to getting the right amount and quality of sleep. These include exercising early in the day, refraining from stimulating activity and avoiding bright lights in the evening, and preparing for bed by calming down and dimming the lights. If you are having trouble getting yourself to make any of these lifestyle adjustments, your brain chemistry may be holding you back.
If you feel that the symptoms you’re experiencing and the substances you’re craving suggest a deficiency or imbalance in any of these chemicals, an adjustment to your brain chemicals may be warranted. There is a good chance you could benefit from a trial of natural supplements prescribed by an informed health-care provider. These include amino acids, essential fatty acids, enzymes, herbs, vitamins, and minerals. Medications also have a place in restoring brain chemistry. Once a prescribed medication has accomplished the initial restoration, the gentler natural supplements can often sustain it.
A medical examination must always be the first step in ruling out physical causes of brain chemical imbalances and any associated symptoms. Do not stop using any prescription drugs or begin taking any supplements without consulting your physician.
Chemical imbalances are caused not simply by an absence or decreased amount of any particular brain chemical but rather by the complex interplay of brain function and chemistry with environmental factors. All overeating behaviors are the result of a complex set of mechanisms that may include inherited deficiencies as well as faulty neurological programming from insufficient early nurturing and traumatic experiences. These, as well as our internal psychological state and our adult interpersonal connections, must be taken into consideration to facilitate recovery.
A multipronged approach is most effective for healing overeating patterns. If your symptoms and cravings are not too bothersome or severe, you may want to practice the mindfulness skills outlined in part 2 before addressing any brain chemistry imbalances. These skills, in addition to the lifestyle adjustments mentioned above, may be sufficient to strengthen the integrative circuits of your brain.
Learning internal attunement through mindfulness practice will help you connect to your inner world of feelings, unmet needs, thoughts, beliefs, and memories. By building and strengthening an inner nurturing voice and associated skill set, you’ll enhance the self-regulation circuitry in your brain, connecting top to bottom and left to right. At the same time, you’ll sharpen your self-soothing skills and learn how to calm your stress response. When all the parts of your brain are communicating and working properly, you’ll begin to notice that your favorite comfort foods have less of a hold on you.
