Читать книгу Imagery and GIS - Kass Green - Страница 79

By far the largest amount of imagery is collected from HVH-spatial-resolution multispectral and panchromatic passive sensors on all platform types including UASs. These sensors provide the imagery that is the source of most maps of streets, buildings, soil types, hydrologic features, airports, crops, forests, wetlands, military facilities, and topography.

All early passive sensors were flown on aircraft (initially balloons) and relied upon panchromatic film imaging surfaces. In the 1930s, Kodak introduced color aerial camera film. Satellite civilian digital satellite scanners were introduced with the launch of Landsat 1 in 1972, and civilian digital airborne systems were introduced in the 1990s. While it is still possible to collect airborne imagery with film cameras, they are in little use. However, much of the long-term archive of remotely sensed imagery exists in film archives, and any change detection for the years before the 1970s will need to rely on scanned images captured from film positives or negatives.

Most HVH-resolution imagery is collected in either panchromatic or blue, green, red, and near-infra wavelengths. Some systems (e.g., WorldView-2 and -3) collect additional bands. Table 4.2 summarizes the current satellite sources of passive HVH-spatial-resolution panchromatic and multispectral imagery. Within five years, the supply of this type of imagery is anticipated to grow exponentially with the continued adoption of UAS use and the launches of several constellations of satellites by private companies, as shown in figure 4.2 and detailed in table 4.3.

Figure 4.2. The growing supply of high- and very-high-resolution satellite imagery. Source: Euroconsult

Sources of HVH-resolution panchromatic and multispectral imagery include the following:

 ArcGIS Online, which offers multiple cached high- and very-high-resolution imagery datasets. Its World Imagery comprises imagery at multiple scales and from multiple sources. ArcGIS Online also dynamically serves four-band NAIP imagery over the lower 48 states (at no charge), and four bands of very-high-resolution Hexagon imagery over parts of the United States, Canada, and Western Europe (for a subscription charge).

 Private remote sensing and photogrammetry firms. Many remote sensing and photogrammetry firms operate in countries with open airspace. The companies offer new flights to collect imagery for a charge, with the rights of the imagery usually passing to the purchaser. Most remote sensing firms also archive images captured over the life of the firm. Unfortunately, these archives are often dispersed, held by either the company that collected the photos or the organization that funded the collection. Recently the American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing established the ASPRS Aerial Data Catalog, which is a tool for locating aerial photography throughout the world (http://www.asprs.org/DPAC/index.php/?view=listmanagerfront). The site is fairly new and has records on only a limited number of archives, but several firms have committed to including their information.

 UASs. With relatively little investment (compared to buying an airplane), analysts can purchase their own UASs with panchromatic and/or multispectral sensors. However, the capacities of these systems are still limited, making only relatively small collects possible. A good primer on using UASs can be found and accessed at http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/.

 NAIP imagery is collected at a 1-meter resolution over the lower 48 states of the United States over three-year cycles by the USDA Farm Services Agency. The program initially relied on true color film sensors when it started in 2003, but transitioned to four-band (R, G, B, and near-infrared [NIR]) digital sensors in 2009. The imagery is available for free download and without license restriction from APFO as compressed .sid (2003–2007) or JPEG 2000 (2008 to the present) files of digital ortho quarter quad mosaics. NAIP imagery can also be downloaded from USGS EROS as JPEG 2000 digital quarter quads (https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/NAIP). Additionally, some states (e.g., California) both serve and provide access for downloading uncompressed NAIP imagery for their state and, as mentioned before, ArcGIS Online serves all four bands of the imagery, providing full access to the raw pixel data. Figure 4.3 shows the current cycle of NAIP imagery by state.

Table 4.2. Comparison of current commercial high- and very-high-spatial-resolution satellites (esriurl.com/IGT42 for current version.)

Table 4.3. Planned near-term launches of high- and very-high-spatial-resolution panchromatic and multispectral imagery (esriurl.com/IGT43 for current version.)

 Hexagon. Esri and Leica Geosystems have partnered to serve 15- and 30-cm aerial imagery over much of the United States, Canada, and Europe. In the United States, the Hexagon imagery is a higher-spatial-resolution version of the NAIP imagery, with the same collection interval. Two products are available, the Basemap Service, which is cached true color imagery, and the Multispectral Imagery Service, which provides access to all four bands served across the web for use in ArcGIS software and applications. The imagery is available as a subscription service and is available from the ArcGIS Marketplace, Hexagon Geospatial’s Power Portfolio, and Valtus.

Figure 4.3. Current cycle of NAIP imagery by state (esriurl.com/IG43)

 Commercial Satellite Imagery Providers. DigitalGlobe and Airbus are the two largest and longest-established HVH-resolution commercial satellite imagery vendors. They sell licenses to worldwide 30-cm to 1-m panchromatic and 1-m to 4-m multispectral imagery from a constellation of satellites (see table 4.2) under licensing agreements. Both vendors also have extensive archives, especially DigitalGlobe, whose archive dates back to IKONOS—the first high-resolution civilian satellite system, launched in 1999. Private companies currently operating HVH earth observing remote sensing systems includeDigitalGlobe: https://www.digitalglobe.com/,Airbus Defense and Space: http://www.intelligence-airbusds.com/,Planet: https://www.planet.com/,UrtheCast: https://www.urthecast.com/,Earth-i: http://earthi.space/.

 USGS EROS Center. A full listing of EROS archive products can be found at https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/products_overview. HVH-resolution panchromatic and multispectral imagery offered for download from EROS are older datasets and include:DigitalGlobe imagery purchased by federal agencies. IKONOS, GeoEye-1, QuickBird, and WorldView-1 to -3 imagery purchased by federal agencies is available to other US federal agency users only, either at no cost or for the cost of a license upgrade. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/UCDPDigital orthophoto quadrangles in panchromatic, true color, or color infrared with a 1-m spatial resolution. They are available to all users for download at no cost as quarter quadrangles (3.75 minutes) for 48 states and were completed in 2004. USGS also has black-and-white, full 7.5-minute quadrangles for much of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/DOQsOrbView-3 imagery collected between 2003 and 2007. This 1-meter panchromatic and 4-meter multispectral data is available for download to all users at no cost and without license restrictions.National High Altitude Program (NHAP) black-and-white (1:58,000) and color infrared photographs (1:80,000) of the conterminous United States collected from 1980 to 1989, which can be downloaded as scanned files. They are available to all users at no cost. The photos have not been terrain corrected. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/NHAPNational Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) photography 1:40,000 black-and-white and color infrared images collected over the 48 conterminous states from 1987 to 2007 and can be downloaded as scanned files. They are available to all users at no cost. The photos have not been terrain corrected. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/NAPP

 USDA APFO. The APFO has a vast amount of aerial photography of the lower 48 states, captured by USDA from 1955 to the present, including the NAIP imagery mentioned above. Until recently, the only way to gain access to its film archive was through requests made to APFO for an aerial photograph to be scanned. However, it is currently scanning much of the film archives. One of the most efficient ways to investigate APFO archive content is through the ArcGIS Online APFO Historical Availability Tile Layer, which lists the type of imagery collected and the year of collection for every county in the 48 conterminous states.

 Bureau of Land Management. The location and date of BLM film collections can be researched using the BLM’s interactive map (https://navigator.blm.gov/home). Copies of photos in the archive must be requested from the BLM.

 National Archives. This site allows registered researchers to gain access to historical maps and aerial photography. It is a rich resource for historical imagery and maps, going back to the 1930s (https://www.archives.gov/research/order/maps.html).

 Declassified intelligence archives. Both the USGS EROS Center and the National Archives and Records Administration maintain archives of more than 990,000 declassified black-and-white CORONA, ARGON, LANYARD, KH-7, and KH-9 satellite reconnaissance film images captured by the United States government worldwide from 1959 to 1980. USGS creates scans of the images on demand for $30.00 per frame. Most of this imagery was collected outside the United States. See https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/declass_1 and https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/declass_2.