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Power, Authority and Vulnerability

So Jesus called them and said to them, ‘You know that among the Gentiles those whom they recognize as their rulers lord it over them, and their great ones are tyrants over them. But it is not so among you; but whoever wishes to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wishes to be first among you must be slave of all. For the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for many.’ Mark 10.42–45

2.1. Human and divine power

Power in the human context can be defined as ‘the ability to influence the behaviour, thoughts, emotions and attitudes of other people’ (Bons-Storm 1996, p. 25). The power held by human beings in our society is derived from a variety of sources, including money and possessions, physical health and strength, age, gender, colour, ethnic origin, educational attainment and social status. In a secular context power tends to be seen as something negative, evoking images of control, exploitation and abuse. Often power is spoken of as if it is a possession in limited supply which will diminish if shared. Thus power becomes confused with domination, although they are not the same. The Bible teaches us that power can be used destructively or in ways that are liberating, enabling others to flourish and grow. Christians believe that power belongs to God, but that as ‘participants in the divine nature’ (2 Peter 1.4) and through the power of the Holy Spirit, we share in God’s power. This life-enhancing power is crucial in the story of salvation and a key issue in our spiritual life. We should not hide it or deny it, but own it and use it creatively in the service of others and to build up the whole Church. Jesus, in his life and ministry, shows us divine power being used in response to human need, but always inviting and never forcing a response (Doctrine Commission 2003).

2.2. Inequalities of power in ministerial relationships

All ministers need to recognize and be sensitive to inequalities of power in ministerial relationships and to use their power in ways that are positive and enabling for others. At times this may mean that a minister has to consciously set aside his or her own power in order to empower the other person. Wisdom in the exercise of power can only be achieved through a willingness to examine how we use our power and humility in accepting criticism from those who are less powerful. It also requires that those who feel relatively powerless resist the role of victim and have the courage to confront those who hold power in relation to them. It takes courage to risk offering honest criticism to someone in authority, especially if they are someone we like or whose approval matters to us. It also requires the humility to recognize that sometimes our criticisms may be misjudged or unfair (Doctrine Commission 2003).

The story of the Canaanite woman (who challenges Jesus saying to him ‘Yes, Lord, yet even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their masters’ table’, to which he responds ‘Woman, great is your faith! Let it be done for you as you wish’) exemplifies the creative possibilities when both the powerful and the powerless are able to listen and learn from each other (Matt. 15.21–28). Refusal to listen to another person’s point of view comes from a fear of losing power. Jesus’ response demonstrates a very different possibility. The Canaanite woman’s courage in confronting Jesus and his willingness to listen bring him a wider understanding of his calling, while she is empowered in her faith and her daughter is healed.

2.3. Authority and ordination

Authority is power that is both explicit and legitimate. Clergy need to be aware that, even if they see themselves as sharing power or working collaboratively, ordination confers a particular authority which can be extremely influential upon lay people. Such authority encompasses not only the institutional authority of official appointment, but also the authority from God to be a symbolic representative of the community of faith and religious tradition. This authority is symbolized at ordination with the words, ‘Receive this book as a sign of the authority which God has given you this day …’

It may be difficult for some who hold the authority of ordained ministry to recognize its effect on others, particularly if they experience themselves as lacking power or influence. Ordained ministers who are insecure in themselves, or feel that their authority is threatened in some way, may compensate by misusing the authority of ordination as if it were their possession. They may rely upon it to bolster their own fragile self-esteem or to enhance their status and power in relation to lay people, rather than seeing it as something to be used to empower the whole faith community.

Ordained ministers need to be particularly aware of how the authority of ordination may affect those whom they are helping. Authority explicitly derived from God will be especially potent in its effect on people of faith. It may make it much harder for them to be critical or to complain, even when there are major failures of ministerial competence or integrity. Authority ascribed to an individual tends to increase the impact that their approval or disapproval, neglect or support has on those who recognize that authority. As a result, the views and opinions of clergy can have a powerful positive or negative influence on parishioners, even though the individual ordained minister might feel that their influence is negligible. It requires humility and imagination to remain in touch with the powerlessness and vulnerability which lay people, junior colleagues or those in training may experience. Their response to feeling powerless may be on a spectrum from uncritical obedience to hostile rejection of authority.

All ministers exercising authority within the Church need to be aware of how authority can be misused or abused, whether consciously or not, and to have constantly in mind their servant status.

2.4. Typology of power

Rollo May’s typology of power (1972) can be helpful in assessing the way we exercise power within ministerial relationships where there are inequalities of power:

 exploitative power dominates, using force and coercion, such as threats or destructive criticism;

 manipulative power controls in more subtle or disguised ways, for example by exclusion from significant communication or using the other person to meet one’s need to be needed;

 competitive power is deeply ingrained in our culture, particularly in our educational and economic systems. It can be positive and energizing when parties are relatively equal, for example in sport, but is destructive where there is an imbalance of power;

 nutritive power sustains and empowers, enabling the less powerful person to develop their own competence and freedom to act, as when adults enable children to do things for themselves, even if to start with they need help and support;

 integrative power respects the freedom of the other person and encourages their potential strengths; it involves relating to them as an equal, albeit with a different role, as in a training relationship where the training incumbent brings skills and experience in ministry and the curate brings skills and experience from previous employment such as teaching.

The following questions are important for all in pastoral ministry:

 What forms of power are most appropriate and life-enhancing in the context of pastoral care?

 What forms of power are negative and destructive in their effects?

 Does the minister exercise power over others or use power to enable others?

 How can power be exercised with a care and sensitivity for those who feel less powerful and an awareness of how it feels to be vulnerable and relatively powerless?

The use of exploitative, manipulative or competitive power is always damaging within pastoral relationships. Such approaches to power emphasize inequalities, so that the exercise of power by one person diminishes the power of another. In contrast, both nutritive and integrative forms of power enhance rather than restrict the power of others. Roles may be different but relationship and mutuality are encouraged. Both parties are willing to listen to each other and each is open to the possibility of change. Influence is two-way and power becomes an energy which flows between people, instead of a scarce resource being competed for. It is then a creative and healing resource, enabling both individuals and groups to discover their strengths and to fulfil their potential. Such life-giving energy increases as it is shared, so that the whole faith community can be empowered in the worship and service of God.

Reflection – inequalities of power Recall relationships (in both secular and church contexts) where there have been inequalities of power between you and another person. Use Rollo May’s typology of power to identify how power was used or responded to by the other person or by you. What did you learn from those experiences about negative and positive uses of power?

2.5. Gender and power in secular society

Historically there have been considerable differences in the ways men and women in our society have exercised power. Although patterns are changing, such differences continue to have a significant, though often unrecognized, influence. In some areas of secular employment, particularly those where women have parity of education and income, women are now established on an equal footing with men. However, women are still less likely to attain the most senior positions in secular society, they still suffer inequalities in pay and pensions and, in general, men continue to hold more social, economic and political power than women.

In secular organizations, where women now hold senior positions, the model for exercising authority still derives from a dominant masculine culture, emphasizing challenge, competitiveness, rationality and targets. Women who adopt this pattern may be criticized for being harsh and aggressive, whereas men who behave in similar ways are more likely to be seen as behaving confidently and positively. Women who do not adopt more typically masculine patterns of behaviour may experience being unheard and invisible, for example by having their ideas either ignored or attributed to male colleagues. In mixed committees, discussion groups or informal social groups it is not uncommon for subject matter to be dominated by men’s interests and for women to have difficulty in finding an opening in which to make a contribution. (Of course men may also find themselves marginalized, if they are unable or unwilling to conform to stereotypical patterns of behaviour.)

2.6. Gender and power in the Church

In the Church of England, the ordination of women to the priesthood has brought profound changes in the part that women can play in the leadership of the Church at the local level. However, it is easy to overlook how recently an entirely male priesthood ministered to predominantly female congregations. While the culture of the Church is changing, it still lags behind many of the developments in the secular world and there are relatively few women in those senior positions open to them. At diocesan and national level, church leadership is still predominantly male and, within this masculine world, even the most able and articulate women may find it difficult to have their voices heard.

Many men, ordained and lay, are affirming in their attitude towards the ministry of women and many senior staff encourage individual women clergy. However, they may still be unaware of the underlying structural issues which can disempower women in ministry. Younger women entering ordained ministry in the Church of England, or older women who have experienced the relative gender equality of secular employment, are likely to experience some culture shock as they begin training or enter parish ministry. This may not be obvious to them while things are going well, but it is likely that, when conflict or tensions arise, they will have to deal with attitudes towards women which may seem dated, patronizing, discriminatory and damaging. There are still many church contexts where gender issues cannot be spoken about without arousing bafflement or irritation from both women and men. Women with a vocation to ordained ministry need courage, wisdom and support in discerning when and how to challenge such attitudes.

2.7. Men, women and power

As human beings our similarities will always be greater than our differences. Nevertheless, it is obvious that as boys and girls, women and men, our bodily experience is different and must impact on how we experience each other and the world around us. As research into physiological influences on our behaviour progresses, our understanding of the underlying causes of the different ways in which men and women tend to think, perceive the world and interact will increase.

Amid the varied social contexts of postmodern society it is difficult to generalize about our experiences of power and gender, which are clearly far less rigidly defined than they used to be. Generalizations about gender can always be criticized for failing to honour diversity and individuality, but they may also help us to identify how we are restricted by the culture which has formed us and of which we are a part. While there may be a wide spectrum of experiences, the socialization which a child receives in family, social and school life continues to be affected by gender in ways which will influence interactions in adult life.

Typically boys and men are encouraged to develop confidence in exercising power, reinforcing the greater size and strength of their bodies and encouraging them to feel that it is good to be powerful. The energy and vitality which this familiarity with power brings can be used in creative initiatives and has an important part to play in ministry. However, its downside may be too much emphasis on men feeling they have to be strong and consequent pressure on them to deny feelings of vulnerability and weakness (Hahn 1991). As a result men who are afraid or unable to acknowledge weakness may try to avoid facing their vulnerability by self-harming behaviour such as working too hard, excessive social drinking, or escaping into extra-marital affairs. Or they may succumb to illness and exhaustion through the struggle to maintain a façade of strength and invulnerability.

Girls and women are still more likely to be socialized to be passive and responsive rather than to initiate, a pattern reinforced by the way their bodies teach women to surrender to the processes of life. The positive side of this can be a willingness to wait and trust, to be attentive, allowing and enabling things to happen rather than forcing the pace. There may also be more readiness to live with the emptiness of loss, rather than immediately wanting to fill the space with something new (Hahn 1991).

Traditionally, women have been encouraged to use their power to nurture and develop others’ gifts (for example as wives and mothers, or in professions such as teaching, nursing, social work or counselling). The nurturing and integrative use of power has always been (and still is) undervalued by secular society and this has also influenced attitudes towards the exercise of power in the Church. While enabling others to achieve their potential should be a central aim of pastoral ministry for which women’s experience equips them well, there is also the risk that women may limit their expectations of themselves and miss opportunities to explore the full extent of their gifts or to use them creatively in the public realm. Women, particularly if they are struggling for recognition of their abilities and potential, may also deny their vulnerability and, like men, they may get into self-harming patterns of overwork, excessive social drinking or extra-marital affairs. However, a woman’s pattern of self-harm is more likely to be bound up with damaging feelings of powerlessness and to take place in the privacy of home. Examples might be eating disorders, secret drinking, excessive spending or exhausting herself in trying to fulfil responsibility for cleaning, shopping, cooking and childcare to unrealistic standards, in addition to work outside the home.

2.8. Women’s access to power in the public realm

Until relatively recently most women had to rely on indirect access to power in the public realm, usually through their husband’s position. As a result, women have been less confident and experienced in using their power to influence events more directly. This has often limited their involvement in decision-making, although organizations such as the Mothers’ Union have played an important part in enabling women to find their voice and gain experience in public leadership. The ambivalence women have about being seen as powerful has led many women to underplay their power, using it behind the scenes to influence men or exercising it within the domestic sphere. When women are excluded from the exercise of power in the public domain, or retreat from it because of lack of confidence or fear of rejection, they may develop an exaggerated perception of other people’s power. This may reinforce a sense of their own powerlessness and make them more vulnerable to abuse (Hahn 1991).

Women who achieve direct access to power and authority through ordination can find themselves in conflict with women who have relied on informal access to power (for example with the clergy wife who is very involved in her husband’s ministry), or with women who have been confined to exercising their power and control in aspects of parish life traditionally allocated to women, such as flower arranging or catering. The ensuing tensions may lead to frustration and hurt. Women who have struggled to have their vocation recognized may feel resented, while a woman who has sacrificed herself for her husband’s ministry or has devoted herself to the domestic aspects of parish life may feel threatened. Women in positions of authority still have relatively few role models of women exercising leadership in the Church. They can therefore feel undermined by comments from colleagues and parishioners suggesting that they are ‘too powerful’, with the implication that this makes them unattractive and unfeminine and threatens their relationships. As a result, lay and ordained women who hold authority within the Church may feel ambivalent about openly exercising their power for fear of criticism or rejection.

When Christian theology challenges the use of power over others and calls for a willingness to be vulnerable and to serve, it may be a very appropriate challenge to more typically masculine ways of exercising power. Although women can also misuse their power, women are usually more attuned than men to using it to nurture and enable others and more in touch with the paradoxical strength of embracing vulnerability (Hahn 1991). However, women may need to be aware of a tendency to manipulate (albeit unconsciously) in situations where they feel powerless. They may have to learn courage in exercising their power and authority in ways that are transparent and unambiguous. Women are also more likely to need a theology which encourages them to be confident in using the full range of their gifts and abilities in Christian ministry. Mary’s ‘Let it be with me’ in response to God’s call is a strong and positive affirmation of faith, and the language of the Magnificat speaks of empowerment, not passive acceptance.

2.9. Inequalities of power in pastoral care

Any relationship in which one person seeks help from another involves asymmetrical power and it is crucial that all ministers acknowledge this reality. The ‘provider’ inevitably holds more power than the person needing help. This inequality increases if the helper has the authority of an official or professional position (e.g. priest, teacher, doctor, police officer, etc.). It is abusive to use such asymmetrical power to gratify needs for affirmation, let alone to manipulate or coerce an individual to satisfy sexual desires or to obtain material or financial advantage.

In pastoral ministry, power and authority will be experienced differently depending on the gender of both the person offering pastoral care and the person receiving that care. The ascribed authority and power of male pastors or senior colleagues will be reinforced by the power still inherent in being a man in our society. Male ministers therefore need to be particularly aware of the possibility of misusing (albeit unconsciously) or abusing this power, particularly when ministering to women or relating to female colleagues in ministry. Male ministers also need to be aware of how easy it is to ignore or override the quieter voices of women. Greater height, bulk, strength and volume of voice can all have a powerful impact and men need to recognize how physical presence may affect others and can be misused to ensure that they are heard and others are not.