Читать книгу The Swiss Alps - Kev Reynolds - Страница 9
ОглавлениеTHE MOUNTAINS
The Alps in winter – a pristine world of great beauty
Daubed with snow and ice and interspersed with lakes and lush green valleys, the Alps spread across the southern and central regions of Switzerland to give the country its dominant physical presence. Below the mountains to the north lies the more populated and industrial Mittelland, beyond which the relatively low limestone range of the Jura folds into France.
Despite being created some 90–100 million years ago when Africa collided with the Eurasian tectonic plate, pushing the land into waves of rock that eventually took shape as the mountains we see today, the Alps are still young in geological terms. Constantly reshaping, their youthful nature is characterised by jagged peaks and sharp ridges sculpted by ice and water. As they rise, the mountains are being worn down. Frost shatters immense blocks. Glaciers gouge chunks of rock and spew them out as moraine debris, and year upon year their torrents bring down tens of thousands of tons of mountain in the shape of silt and mud to nourish the fertile lowland fields.
Global warming increases that process of mountain destruction, not just by the melting of snowfields and glaciers, but the permafrost too. In many places the rock is so fragmented that it is only glued together by ice. When that melts, the mountains, or large portions of them, fall down. In April 1991 a large section of the Langenflueberg collapsed into the Mattertal near Randa, demolishing the railway, blocking the river and cutting the upper valley off for several days. In the July 2003 heatwave massive rockfalls marooned 70 climbers above 3400m on the Matterhorn’s Hörnli ridge. A little under two years later 500,000 cubic metres of moraine collapsed onto the Lower Grindelwald glacier below the Fiescherwand, taking a restaurant with it. The following year an estimated 1.5 million cubic metres of rock broke away from the Eiger’s southeast flank; shortly after an impressive 50,000 cubic metre flake of rock detached itself from the east flank of the same mountain and stood precariously in the glacier gorge above Grindelwald.
In common with all alpine glaciers, the Oberer Grindelwaldgletscher is shrinking fast
As this book goes to print the Swiss Alps are changing shape, and it is inevitable that some of the descriptions – not only of peaks, glaciers and snowfields, but routes to their summits – will have become outdated; such is the speed of change.
Climate change and global warming may be 21st-century buzzwords, but from about one million years ago the Alps have experienced a cycle of extended cold periods (ice ages), rapidly followed by climatically warmer intervals; each cycle lasting about 2000 years. Until these ice ages began, it is thought that the mountains consisted of bare rock peaks divided by narrow V-shaped river valleys, but then came the glaciers which covered all but the highest summits and ridges of the Central Alps, filling the valleys and stretching out into the lowlands. Reaching its peak about 25,000 years ago, the last great ice age smothered much of modern Switzerland, widening and deepening the alpine valleys, chiselling and sharpening peaks and smoothing rock walls. It was then that the Rhône glacier stretched 150km from its source near the Furkapass to the Lake of Geneva.
When the last great ice age drew to an end, glaciers slowly retreated, revealing characteristic U-shaped valleys, and great banks of terminal moraine formed dams that turned rivers of meltwater into the lakes for which Switzerland is also known. When the glacier that had filled the Surselva valley on the east side of the Oberalp Pass withdrew, a vast section of mountain collapsed into the valley below where Flims now stands, blocking the river for a length of something like 15km. When the pressure of water finally broke through the blockage, a wall of water swept downvalley causing much devastation.
In the warm period of 2000–4000 years ago, much less ice covered the Alps than there is today. Relics found near the 3301m summit of the Theodulpass show that it was snow-free in Roman times, and the tongues of 1st-century glaciers were then at least 300m higher than they are now. Throughout the Middle Ages, a number of passes that are covered by glaciers today were free from snow and ice and were in regular use.
But glaciers began to advance again from the 15th century onwards, reaching their greatest extent around 1850 during what has been referred to as a mini ice age. Visiting Grindelwald in 1723 Horace Mann reported that an exorcist had been employed to halt the advance of the glaciers that were threatening to engulf the village, while a century later James David Forbes described an advancing glacier invading fields of corn, and of seeing peasants gathering ripe cherries ‘with one foot standing on the ice’.
GLACIER RETREAT: CONSEQUENCES FOR MOUNTAINEERING
Recent hot summers have seen the collapse of snow bridges adding to problems where access routes cross glaciers. In some years classic mixed faces have not been in condition (the White Spider section on the Eiger’s Nordwand disappeared in the summer of 2003), and where glaciers are in retreat they often leave behind hazardous slopes of steep and unstable rock. Shrinking icefields have had a significant effect on numerous routes, especially where the climber transfers from glacier to newly polished rockface. Here, as on the approach to several huts, metal ladders may have been bolted to the rock to secure progress, while melting permafrost not only leads to increased danger from stonefall, but also threatens the stability of installations such as pylons carrying cable cars.
Glacier retreat and the increased possibility of rockfall can change the character of a route in significant ways. Climbers are therefore advised to check current conditions with great care before undertaking any alpine expedition.
The present glacial retreat began in the mid-19th century, and according to the Glacier Monitoring Service of the Swiss Academy for Natural Sciences, between 1850 and 2000 some 249 Swiss glaciers disappeared completely. Many more are in danger of disappearing within the next two or three decades, as satellite measurements recorded over the 15-year period from 1985 to 2000 show a 20 per cent loss of the glaciated surface of the Swiss Alps. Apart from the environmental consequences, glacier shrinkage can have a serious impact on mountain activities.
Mountain Activities
Walking/trekking
Every region included in this guide holds almost unlimited scope for walkers of all ages, abilities and ambitions, and in the majority of cases superb multi-day routes exist that link huts, mountain inns and villages. Literally tens of thousands of kilometres of footpaths have been created throughout the Swiss Alps; some of these are ancient trading routes; others, hundreds of years old, were worn by farmers, chamois hunters and crystal collectors. Some have been made specifically to reach mountain huts, while yet more have been devised and constructed by local tourist authorities for the simple enjoyment of their visitors. The majority of trails are waymarked, signed and well maintained, with bridges constructed over large streams and rivers, and rope or metal handrails provided to give psychological support where a section of trail is narrow or exposed.
Footpaths in the mountains are signed with customary Swiss efficiency.
Unambiguous waymarks help walkers keep to their route
The easiest paths (wanderweg) are waymarked with yellow paint flashes. White-red-white striped waymarks are used on more challenging mountain trails (bergweg), while blue-and-white waymarks indicate a so-called alpine route (alpenweg). These alpine routes often involve cairned areas where no proper path exists; there could also be some scrambling involved, with via ferrata/klettersteig style sections of ladder, lengths of fixed rope/cable, or iron rungs drilled into the rock to enable users to surmount difficult crags. Agility and a good head for heights are essential.
Signposts are found at most trail junctions. Apart from a few major resort areas such as Zermatt, they conform to a national standard and provide information with typical Swiss efficiency. Coloured yellow these signs bear the names of major landmark destinations, such as a pass, lake, hut or village, or sometimes a name that appears on no map but which refers to a specific footpath junction. Estimated times to reach these places are given in hours and minutes, while some of the signposts include a plate giving the name and altitude of the immediate locality. In the early stages of a holiday, times may seem difficult to achieve, but most hill walkers soon find them less of a challenge.
In summer, gentle valley walks suitable for families with small children follow trails and tracks through meadows, alongside rivers and around lakes. Funicular railways, gondola lifts and cable cars provide opportunities to gain height and far-reaching views without effort, and in a number of cases enable modest walkers to enjoy easy trails to vantage points that would otherwise be beyond their ambition. Alp hamlets and the occasional farm restaurant make obvious goals. Neither prior experience (beyond common sense) nor specialised equipment will normally be required. But waterproofs, warm clothing and refreshments should be carried, and inexperienced walkers should never stray from a marked footpath. Local tourist offices often provide useful leaflets suggesting suitable walks.
Bolted to the rockface, metal ladders like this one on the Pas de Chèvres, enable trekkers to scale otherwise impassable slabs
Stream crossing en route to the Vereinapass in the Rätikon Alps
Keen hillwalkers have a wonderland to explore, for countless footpaths seduce to mountain huts, passes, viewpoints and modest summits, every one of which will almost certainly reward with an unforgettable experience. For the newcomer to the Alps, however, ambition needs to be tempered with caution. On a first visit the sheer size and scale of the mountains can either excite or intimidate, and it may be difficult to appreciate just how long it will take to walk from A to B when the map’s contours are so tightly drawn. Don’t overstretch yourself on the first few outings. Keep ambition in check until routes have been found that match your capabilities, and make sure you enjoy the steep uphills as much as the level sections and downhill trails. Always carry a map and compass or GPS – and know how to use them. Stick to marked trails and avoid taking shortcuts that will lead to soil erosion, and where a route crosses terrain where no footpath as such is evident, keep alert for waymarks (paint flashes) and/or cairns that show the way.
WEBSITES FOR THE INDEPENDENT WALKER AND TREKKER
www.wandersite.ch and www.wanderland.ch both give plenty of information and advice as well as outline routes for the walker in Switzerland.
Trekking, or walking a multi-day route, is for many the ultimate way to experience the mountains. In essence trekking consists of a series of linear day walks with each successive night spent in a different location. In some mountain regions trekkers need to be self-reliant and carry tent, cooking stove and food. But in Switzerland such backpacking is unnecessary, for there’s a wonderful string of mountain huts, inns, dormitories and hotels almost everywhere below the snowline, enabling the outdoor enthusiast to make a whole host of journeys carrying little more than the basic essentials in a fairly small rucksack. Travelling light frees the spirit to roam the high places with maximum enjoyment and minimum sweat. This book outlines a number of hut-to-hut treks; some have dedicated guidebooks (listed where the route is described), while many more could be devised by careful study of the appropriate maps.
Equipment for the walker and trekker
Experienced hillwalkers will no doubt have their preferences, but the following list of clothing and equipment gives suggestions for newcomers to the Alps. Some items will obviously not be needed if outings are to be confined to low valley walks.
lightweight walking boots with good grip – essential for dealing with rough terrain, scree and steep slopes
wind- and waterproof jacket and overtrousers
warm clothing such as fleece jacket, hat and gloves – even in summer
brimmed hat, sunglasses, suncream and lip salve
trekking poles – useful for crossing streams and rocky ground, and help reduce strain on leg joints
rucksack with waterproof cover and liner
closed cell sitmat to be used as an insulated seat on damp ground or rocks
map and compass and/or GPS
first aid kit
sleeping bag liner (for use in mountain huts)
Climbing/mountaineering
The Swiss Alps have some of the finest, most historic and challenging of all the world’s mountains, among which even a modest ascent can reward with memorable adventures played out in a fabulous setting. The 4000m peaks may jostle at the top of an ambitious climber’s tick-list, yet numerous ‘lesser peaks’ would be worth the attention of anyone with a sense of adventure. This book suggests where some of these adventures may be won.
There are essential differences, of course, between climbing in Britain and climbing in the Alps; altitude for a start. Britain’s highest summit (Ben Nevis) is 1344m, while most alpine climbs are on peaks of 3000m and more. While a day’s mountaineering in Britain can net several summits, many alpine climbs are spread over two days – the first spent on the approach to a hut, with the second day devoted to the climb itself, followed by descent to the valley.
The East Summit of Piz Palü (Chapter 4:4)
The icy heart of a glacier – to avoid close acquaintance rope up and stay alert!
The sheer scale and variety of alpine scenery is another major difference, and in Switzerland alone a climber could spend a lifetime of active holidays in one area after another without repeating a single route. But in the Alps climbing is a more serious business than in non-alpine areas, with objective dangers that should never be ignored. Rockfall, for example, can occur on almost any route, seracs can topple without prior warning, and even the most innocent-looking glacier may have hidden crevasses.
To climb safely in the Alps involves a number of skills, including a combination of rope management, route-finding ability, appreciation of snow and ice conditions, crevasse identification and an understanding of crevasse rescue, as well as fitness and good acclimatisation.
Knowledge of alpine mountains and mountaineering only comes with experience, but is essential to enable the climber to select a route that is in good condition, to recognise potentially hazardous snow and ice conditions, to detect the presence of crevasses, and predict changing weather patterns. Experience tells the climber what time to set out, when it is safest to deal with difficult or dangerous sections of the route, when and where the greatest threat of avalanche lies, or where rock is likely to be free from a glaze of ice.
Navigational skills are essential for safety and success in the mountains. Correct route-finding on both rock and glacier will save time and energy and limit a climbing party’s exposure to danger. Close scrutiny of the appropriate maps and guidebook (where one exists) will be extremely useful. But with glacial recession and rockfall changing the mountains from one season to the next, quizzing other climbers who have recently done the route will often be the most beneficial approach. When on rock finding the correct way can be helped by signs of previous climbers, but beware of following other parties unless you’re sure that they are on the same route you wish to climb. If the moves are much harder (or easier) than the grade your chosen route warrants, there’s a good chance you’re off-route.
As well as rock, snow and ice climbing skills, rope management should be practised in advance on climbs at home until they’re second nature. But the alpine environment has demands beyond those of Britain’s mountains, for safe movement on glaciers, for example, involves its own technique. While ‘dry’ glaciers (bare of snow) are usually safe to cross because crevasses are clearly visible, on snow-covered (‘wet’) glaciers where crevasses are hidden, parties should cross roped together 15m apart. Three on a rope is the minimum for safety on a glacier (four for preference), but even then it’s not easy for two people to haul one unfortunate victim from a crevasse. Crevasse rescue is a skill that all would-be alpinists should practise.
Being fit on arrival in the Alps enables a party to move quickly and safely over a variety of terrain, and combined with good acclimatisation and stamina will allow them to complete long and arduous routes without fatigue impairing their judgement. Speed and efficiency equal safety.
ALPINE INSTRUCTION FOR BEGINNERS
Basic skills can be learned to an extent from various instruction manuals and DVDs, but mountaineering courses have a more immediate practical impact. Among those based in the Alps, the International School of Mountaineering (ISM) run alpine courses from their operations centre in Leysin (www.alpin-ism.com). Alpine instruction is also given by qualified British Mountain Guides (www.bmg.org.uk), and a number of commercial organisations run courses and mountaineering holidays in the Alps. Study advertisements in the outdoor press for details. For an entertaining primer, John Barry’s Alpine Climbing (Crowood Press, 1995) is highly recommended.
With their snow cover gone, ‘dry’ glaciers like this are safer to cross as crevasses should be clearly visible
Clothing and equipment for climbing/mountaineering
The list below is neither comprehensive nor prescriptive, but offered as a general guide for an alpine summer. If technical climbing is not on the agenda, a number of these items will not be required.
A comfortable, well-adjusted rucksack (40–50 litres) with compression straps, and a waterproof liner.
Clothing should be lightweight wherever possible. Layers allow flexibility with the varying temperatures encountered during an alpine climb; a thermal vest as a base layer is preferred. Trousers of a stretch material are ideal. Overtrousers should have long zips so they can be pulled on and off over crampons.
Two pairs of gloves will be needed; an inner pair with leather palms allow good grip for technical climbing, while lined mittens provide protection in cold conditions.
A fleece hat, brimmed sunhat and climbing helmet are all essential.
Comfortable leather boots for most climbs in summer, but plastic boots in winter, in extra cold conditions, and for the very highest summits. Crampons must be compatible with your boots (plus point covers or a thick bag for safety in travel).
Full length gaiters help keep legs and feet dry when ploughing through snow.
A climbing sit-harness; ice axe (minimum 50cm) with curved pick, and an ice hammer.
A single 9–10mm rope (minimum length 40m) is fine for glaciers and non-technical climbs. For advanced routes two 9mm ropes allow longer abseils on descent. Each member of a climbing party should carry spare cord or tape to back up any suspect abseil point; a belay plate, descender and two prusiks – and know how to use them.
On many climbs essential bolts and pegs are often in place (treat all in situ gear with caution), but runners, slings and karabiners will be needed, and depending on the route, ice screws, friends, quick-draws and a full set of wired nuts may be required.
Sunglasses with side protection, and a high-factor suncream and lip salve are absolutely essential, as is a first aid kit.
Water bottle – beware of dehydration and drink copiously where possible.
Head torch plus spare batteries and bulbs.
Klettersteig/via ferrata routes
Roughly translated as an ‘iron way’ or ‘climbing path’, klettersteigen (German) or vie ferrate (Italian) first appeared in Austria as early as 1869, developed as part of the armed struggle in the Dolomites during the First World War, and increased in popularity among climbers during the 1930s. In recent years a large number of these protected routes have been established right across the Swiss Alps, enabling activists to scale otherwise inaccessible rock faces by way of metal rungs, ladders or footplates safeguarded by a continuous length of fixed cable. Some sections of the climbing community object to them for cluttering the mountain environment, but there’s no denying their adventurous appeal, for those with no vertigo problems are able to tackle vertical and in some cases overhanging rock to reach vantage points and summits otherwise denied them. Cheating? Maybe. Exhilarating? Most definitely.
Safety equipment such as helmet, sit-harness, karabiners, rope and slings are essential, and their correct use should be rehearsed before setting off on any major klettersteig route. For these are frequently demanding, almost gymnastic undertakings that require a good level of mountain experience. Although non-climbers can successfully tackle some of the lower-grade routes, the ability to rock climb to at least grade III will be necessary on the longer and more challenging routes. A high level of fitness and stamina are also prerequisites.
The existence of many klettersteig routes are highlighted in this book, but the following German-language guide to 55 protected routes in Switzerland is recommended: Klettersteig Schweiz by Iris Kürschner (Rother, Munich 2004).
USEFUL WEBSITES
www.summitpost.org gives details of selected mountains and sample routes
www.viaferrata.org provides information on via ferrata/klettersteig routes in Switzerland, Italy, France and Spain
Ski touring/ski mountaineering
In winter there’s an arctic, pristine beauty to the Alps that many find as appealing as summer’s fine textures and colours. The crisp cold air, clear skies and glistening snows invite activity. Wearing snowshoes the walker can explore a winter wonderland that would be inaccessible equipped only with boots, and those who are fit and experienced are able to snowshoe their way even to modest alpine summits. For a guide to some of the best winter routes, see Hilary Sharp’s Snowshoeing: Mont Blanc & the Western Alps (Cicerone, 2002).
While by far the majority of winter sports enthusiasts go for downhill skiing, with major resorts being Davos, Grindelwald, Klösters, Mürren, Saas Fee, St Moritz, Verbier, Wengen and Zermatt, Switzerland also boasts some of the most important areas for ski mountaineering, and hosts some of the most compelling of tours. The classic Haute Route (Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn) is an obvious example, but there are numerous others, of shorter duration perhaps, but no less rewarding, that can be enjoyed in the Pennine and Bernese Alps, in the Engadine and Central Swiss Alps, in the Albula Alps and Silvretta.
The Pers glacier basin below Piz Palü in the Bernina Alps (Chapter 4:4)
Ski touring (or ski mountaineering) is one of the most demanding of mountain pursuits, and for those who have experienced it, it’s certainly one of the most enjoyable, whose appeal lies as much in satisfactions found when exploring a snow-covered world far from crowded slopes as in the silent beauty of the high Alps. It’s an activity that is growing in popularity as more and more accomplished skiers learn to appreciate the joys of off-piste adventure, and among mountaineers who wish to experience the Alps in winter as well as summer. As Bill O’Connor says: ‘the Alps are, more or less, snowbound from November to June, and those unable to ski are virtually excluded from their heart for all but three months of the summer Alpine season.’
Those whose experience of the Alps has been largely restricted to the summer need to learn additional skills beyond those of skiing and mountaineering in order to tour safely. Knowing how to assess the stability of snow, avalanche awareness and what to do to survive one are perhaps the most important. This is not the book to teach those skills, but it’s worth noting that 80% of avalanche victims are responsible for starting the avalanche they are caught in, and only four out of ten survive.
Bill O’Connor’s inspirational two-volume guide Alpine Ski Mountaineering (Cicerone, 2002, 2003) is both rhapsodic in tone and down-to-earth with instruction; with a host of tours beautifully illustrated and described, it is highly recommended to anyone drawn to the sport.
Equipment for ski touring/ski mountaineering
Apart from warm but lightweight clothing, the primary needs of the ski mountaineer focus on the hardware without which touring becomes impossible. A more comprehensive list is included in Bill O’Connor’s guides (see above).
Comfortable ski mountaineering boots with good quality footbeds.
Wide, short, all-terrain skis with a touring binding.
Climbing skins for uphill work.
Harscheisen – removable ski crampons.
Ski poles with powder baskets.
Shovel – an essential piece of equipment.
Transceiver and spare batteries.
Avalanche probe.
Ice axe, and crampons to fit ski boots.
Climber’s sit-harness.
Two 30m ropes (for a touring party) plus prusiks for each member.
Ski goggles, high-factor suncream and lip salve.
ALPINE CLUB DETAILS
Founded in 1857 the Alpine Club is the world’s oldest mountaineering club and the leading UK organisation for climbers active in the Alps and greater ranges. Benefits of membership include access to the AC Library which houses over 25,000 books on mountain-related subjects, monthly evening lectures, free copy of the Alpine Journal; each year, an annual alpine meet and reduced rates in huts. Visit www.alpine-club.org.uk.
The Swiss Alpine Club (Schweizer Alpen-Club, Club Alpin Suisse, Club Alpino Svizzero, or Club Alpin Svizzer) dates from 1863, has over a hundred individual sections, many of which organise mountain tours, rock climbing and winter activities. The SAC produces a members’ magazine, Die Alpen, publishes guidebooks for walkers, climbers and ski mountaineers, and through its member sections owns and maintains a great number of huts. See www.swiss-sport.ch/sac-cas, www.sac-cas.ch and www.alpenonline.ch.
The Association of British Members of the Swiss Alpine Club (ABMSAC) is an active UK-based club with a strong interest in alpine mountaineering. The Club organises a diverse range of meets to the European Alps and beyond. For information go to www.abmsac.org.uk.
Safety Dos and Don’ts
The following list of precautionary measures is valid for most mountain activities without reducing adventure in any meaningful way.
Ensure you are physically and mentally prepared for the challenge of your chosen route.
Plan your day with care; study the route details and time required to complete it. Don’t overestimate either your own physical ability or that of your companions, but make a generous allowance for delays, imperfect conditions and bad weather.
Carry liquid refreshment, emergency rations and a first aid kit.
Check the weather forecast before setting out.
Watch for signs of deteriorating weather, and don’t be too proud to turn back should it be safer to do so than continue in the face of an oncoming storm.
Don’t venture onto exposed ridges if a storm is imminent. In the event of being caught by one avoid prominent rocks, metallic objects or isolated features, and refrain from taking shelter in caves, beneath overhanging rocks or in gullies.
Should you be involved in an accident, stay calm, move yourself and, if feasible, the injured person (with care not to aggravate the injury) away from any imminent danger, and apply immediate first aid. Keep the victim warm by providing emergency shelter and adding any spare clothing available, and alert the rescue services – see below.
A rescue helicopter in action in the Bernese Alps
Mountain Rescue
All mountain activities involve a degree of risk, and participants should be aware of the fact and accept responsibility for their own actions. Since accidents occur in the Alps every year and in every season, it is important to know the procedure for calling out the rescue services. Remember, the cost of an emergency rescue and subsequent medical treatment can be extremely expensive. Be properly insured – see the section in Practicalities above. (It’s advisable to leave a copy of your insurance details with a responsible person at home, and to carry with you photocopies of important documents, such as passport information pages and insurance certificate, as well as an emergency home contact address and telephone number.)
Notification of an accident
Should you witness, or be involved in, an accident in the Swiss Alps, raise the alarm by calling the local police who organise mountain rescue; the number is 117. If you do not have a mobile phone, or cannot get a signal, remember that telephones are located in most mountain huts, including bivouac huts. Hut guardians will normally help co-ordinate the rescue call-out.
When reporting an accident the following information will need to be given:
your name
location and telephone number
name of victim
nature of injury
exact location
weather conditions at accident site
any obstacles in the accident area (eg cables) which could hamper helicopter evacuation.
Established in 1952 the Swiss air rescue service REGA provides emergency medical assistance throughout Switzerland from its operations centre in Zürich. Its red-and-white helicopters carry a medic and paramedic, and the call-out number is 1414. A non-profit foundation, REGA relies on donations and patronage for its funding. Do not request helicopter assistance for non-serious accidents.
The following signals are used to communicate with a helicopter:
International Mountain Distress Signal
(to be used in an emergency only)
Six blasts on a whistle (and flashes with a torch at night) spaced evenly for one minute, followed by a minute’s pause. In the event of no whistle being available, wave a brightly coloured item of clothing six times a minute, then wait a minute. Repeat until located by a rescuer.
The response is three signals per minute, followed by a pause of one minute.
RESCUE EMERGENCY CARE
First aid training courses designed especially for outdoor pursuits are available throughout the UK and Ireland. Go to www.recfirstaid.net.
Cicerone publishes a very useful pocket-sized first aid handbook: First Aid and Wilderness Medicine by Drs Jim Duff and Peter Gormly.
The extravagant spotted gentian
Trumpet gentian (Photos: Linda Reynolds)
Plant and Animal Life
Plants and animals are vital to the alpine environment, and whether the visitor is intent on walking, trekking or climbing, an awareness of the rich variety of flora and fauna will help create a multi-dimensional experience. Plantlife is incredibly varied, thanks to the wide climatic differences that allow palm trees to flourish below the Lepontines of Ticino, while the glacier crowfoot has been found blooming near the summit of the Finsteraarhorn at over 4200m.
Alpine flora
While the range of mountain plants is enormous, they are grouped by habitat, soil and climate, rather than scattered in a haphazard manner, and are roughly divided between those that are lime-loving and those that exist only among non-calcareous formations. Habitats range from lush meadow to damp marsh and acid bog, from deciduous woodland and coniferous forest to virtually soil-less scree, moraine bank, high rock face and wind-scoured ridge. With such a diverse range of habitats, it’s little wonder that Switzerland has around 620 species of flowering plant, and no matter how small some may be, no matter how remote and inhospitable their lodging place, each one is an integral part of the mountain world.
As the snow recedes in early spring, the lower valleys reveal such perennial favourites as soldanellas, gentians, primulas and anemones that flower, seed and then become dwarfed by the grass and coarse foliage of the burgeoning meadows. And when they’re all-but forgotten, more of the same appear higher up the hillside as a later spring season arrives in late May and June to chase the departing snows from the true ‘alps’ – the summer pasturelands with their groups of chalets and haybarns. In June and early July a profusion of mountain flowers adorn these pastures in a vibrant tapestry, until grazing cattle or the farmer’s scythe have cleared them. In mid-July and August alpines are evident on glacial moraines, among screes, in narrow crevices and open rock faces; tiny cushions of flowering plants, some appearing little more than a stain on a rock, others that display a cluster of rosette-like leaves from which a stem of brilliant colour protrudes. Every one is a gem.
The soldanella referred to above is a tiny violet-blue tassle-headed snowbell (Soldanella alpina) that often appears to burn its way through melting patches of snow. Drifts of crocus appear at the same time, the white or purple Crocus albiflorus and C. vernus, the rose-red primula (Primula hirsuta), and the spring anemone (Pulsatilla vernalis) that also flowers as the snow melts.
The earliest of the gentians, the brilliant blue spring gentian (Gentiana verna) appears from March until August, and is followed at various altitudes and in different habitats by the extravagant trumpet gentians (G. clusii and G. kochiana), the blue-lilac field gentian (Gentianella campestris), the tall blue, multi-flowered willow gentian (G. asclepiadea) that appears in both wooded areas and damp meadows, and the tallest of them all, the great yellow gentian (G. lutea) that grows to more than 1m in height and flowers between June and August.
Growing among stony meadows and rock debris, the large flowered leopardsbane (Doronicum grandiflorum) is a 6–50cm tall member of the daisy family with custard yellow head, very similar in appearance to Arnica montana which appears in meadows and open woods.
Along the edge of woodland straggles of powder-blue alpine clematis (Clematis alpina) twist tendril-like around tree trunks and low branches, the flowers at their best in late June or July. But it is the alpenrose, or dwarf rhododendron (Rhododendron ferrugineum), that makes its presence known both nearby and from a distance, with its mass of pink-to-scarlet flowers spreading across the hillsides (preferring acid soils, but equally at home among limestone), from open woods to the edge of screes.
No alpine flower is more fragrant than the daphne, whose delicate perfume is often detected before the actual plant is seen. The bright pink, low-growing Daphne cneorum and taller, woody-stemmed D. mezereum are both lime-loving plants, while the straggly D. striata is also found among crystalline rocks.
If one mountain flower could be said to represent the Alps it would have to be the edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum), its woolly grey-white bracts creating a distinctive star-shaped head on a slender stem. Growing in clusters, and favouring limestone and schist, it can be found in rocky places up to 3400m, but is equally at home on meadows as low as 1700m.
Much more showy than the edelweiss, the moss campion (Silene acaulis) forms a dense cushion of minute leaves out of which a mass of pink to bright red flowers appear. The white Swiss rock jasmine (Androsace helvetica) also produces a tight cushion which may grow to 15cm across. It grows on limestone, on rocky ridges and screes up to 3500m and comes into flower between May and August, while A. alpina, the alpine rock jasmine has a mat of white flowers blending to a bluey-pink flush. This is found among granite rocks and screes and has been discovered at a little over 4000m.
Thriving among dry moraines, damp streamsides, screes and rocky places, the lovely white glacier crowfoot (Ranunculus glacialis) holds the record for Europe’s highest growing plant, while the azure blue King of the Alps (Eritrichium nanum) survives up to 3600m on acid rocks. This beautiful little plant forms a low, dense cushion of flower heads reminiscent of the dwarf forget-me-not, and is treasured by all who find it.
ILLUSTRATED GUIDES TO ALPINE FLORA
Two long-established and richly illustrated guides to mountain flowers that would aid identification are:
Mountain Flowers in Colour by Anthony Huxley, with illustrations by Daphne Barry and Mary Grierson (Blandford Press, 1967)
The Alpine Flowers of Britain and Europe by Christopher Grey-Wilson with colour illustrations by Marjorie Blamey (Collins, 1979)
Sporting large knobbly horns, a male ibex crops the short grass of an alp
The ubiquitous marmot, at home in almost every alpine valley
A small herd of chamois caught grazing at Busenalp (Photo: Linda Reynolds)
Alpine fauna
Of all alpine mammals the most endearing is the ubiquitous marmot that is seen in practically every district of the Alps, often enjoying the warm sunshine. A sociable furry rodent, the marmot lives in colonies among a range of habitats below the permanent snowline, with burrows excavated in pastures, among rock debris and even alongside busy trails. Growing to the size of a large hare, and weighing as much as 10kg, the marmot spends five or six months of the year in winter hibernation, emerging lean and scruffy in springtime, but soon growing healthy on the summer grasses. The famous shrill whistling sound, given as a warning of danger, is emitted from the back of its throat by an alert adult sitting up on its haunches. Prey to fox and eagle, by September the marmot has accumulated large reserves of fat and begins to prepare its ‘nest’ for the coming winter with a bed of dried grasses; then comes October and it settles into deep hibernation once more.
Chamois are members of the antelope family, characteristically shy of human contact and symbolic of the alpine regions. With short sickle-shaped horns, a white lower jaw and a dark reddish-brown coat in summer bearing a black stripe along the spine, the chamois is fleet-footed and agile. An incomparable sense of smell and acute hearing make them difficult to approach, but when surprised they make a sharp wheezing snort of a warning. During the winter the chamois spends most of the time in forests; the weakest members of a herd often perish, while others are killed by avalanche. As the snows recede, they return to higher altitudes; in May and June moulting takes place, with tufts of hair snagging on rocks and high shrubs, and during the summer months they prefer cool north-facing slopes and snowfields to warm sunny areas.
Much stockier than the chamois, the ibex has adapted perfectly to its hostile environment and can scale the steepest of cliffs with apparent ease. The adult male sports large, knobbly, scimitar-shaped horns and a short stub of beard, while the female could almost be mistaken for a goat with its smaller, less impressive horns and a grey or coffee-coloured coat. Males spend most of the year well away from the females, which inhabit lower regions, and they only come together for the brief mating season.
By contrast the shiny black alpine salamander is a curious newt-like amphibious creature that has adapted to the alpine environment by searching out the most humid areas and remaining concealed during dry weather, but emerging – often in large numbers – during or immediately after heavy showers of rain. It is more often seen in the Oberland than in the drier ranges of the Pennine or Lepontine Alps.
The dainty roe deer inhabits mostly low wooded areas and has a surprisingly raucous bark out of all proportion to its graceful appearance. The red deer stag, on the other hand, has a bellow to match its stately size, and during the autumn rut the forests and open glades echo to the sound. Both red and roe deer have highly developed senses of hearing, sight and smell, and spend most of the daylight hours hidden among the trees, emerging at daybreak and in the evening to graze meadows.
Red squirrels can often be seen scampering among larch, fir and pinewoods, their almost black coat and tufted ears being recognisable features. Conifer woods are also home to the nutcracker whose alarm cry of ‘kre kre kre’ makes it a rival to the jay as the policeman of the woods. It has a large head, strong beak, tawny speckled breast and a distinctive swooping flight, and is noted for breaking open pine cones in order to free the fatty seeds which it hides to feed on in winter.
The alpine chough is one of the commonest birds likely to be met in the Swiss Alps. The unmistakable yellow beak and coral-red feet mark it out from other members of the crow family, and they will often appear to scavenge leftovers of picnic food, perch on rocky summits and gather near mountain huts.
Practically all these creatures, and many more, can be seen in their natural habitats in the Swiss National Park in the Lower Engadine (see 4:5).
Environmental Ethics
Mountains are the ultimate symbols of wild nature, and mountaineering in its many forms both recognises and celebrates that wildness. But the growth of tourism and the sheer volume of walkers, climbers and skiers who flock to the Alps in summer and winter alike threaten to reduce and destroy the very wildness that is its primary attraction. Mountains are not eternal and unchanging; they’re fragile, with ecosystems endangered by pollution, climate change and overuse. We who love the Alps are a major part of the problem.
The unchanging way of life of an Alpine farmer
The ugly rash of ski tows and cable lifts that transport tens of thousands of downhill skiers in winter remain throughout the summer as unwelcome intrusions on snow-free slopes that often bear the scars of bulldozed pistes. On the other hand, snowshoeing, cross-country skiing and ski touring/ski mountaineering have no reliance on such mechanical aids, and make little or no impact on the environment.
Summer mountaineering is supported by a network of huts, by cable cars and funiculars that enable climbers, trekkers and walkers to gain height without physical effort; thus saving themselves both time and energy. Thousands of kilometres of trails wind across the hillsides, marked by splashes of paint or led by cairns; bolts and fixed anchors are applied to chalk-daubed crags; stairways of rungs, ladders and footplates scale rock faces in a rash of enthusiasm for via ferrata thrills; rescue helicopters and those that supply huts disturb the silence of the skies. All these are part of the infrastructure we’ve come to accept and rely on, yet they are alien to the appeal of wild nature.
While we may imagine that the Golden Age of Mountaineering was also a golden age of untarnished nature, it would be totally unrealistic to believe that the Alps could ever return to the conditions experienced by a handful of 19th-century pioneers who had the mountains virtually to themselves. Yet those of us who cannot resist their lure can do several things to minimise our personal impact on them, no matter how small and insignificant they may seem. Multiplied many thousands of times, they can make a difference.
Äsch and its thunderous waterfall (Chapter 6:3)
INFORMATION AT A GLANCE
Communications When making a telephone call to Switzerland from the UK, the international dialling code is 0041. To call the UK from Switzerland use 0044. Cashless call boxes are operated by a phone card (Taxcard) on sale at post offices, newsagents and railway stations. Many call boxes also accept payment by credit card.
Currency The Swiss Franc (CHF); 100 centimes/rappen = CHF1. The Euro (€) is accepted as a means of payment in establishments near a border, but change will be given in Swiss francs. Major credit cards can be used in most hotels, mountain inns and some huts. ATM (cash machines) are located in the majority of towns and tourist resorts.
Emergency telephone number 117 for police/mountain rescue.
Formalities Visas are not required by holders of a valid UK passport or by other EU nationals. Visitors from other countries should enquire at their local Swiss embassy.
Health precautions There are no endemic contagious diseases in Switzerland, and at the time of writing no vaccinations are required for visitors entering the country, unless arriving from an area where cholera or yellow fever are prevalent, in which case an International Health Certificate will be needed. Consideration should be given to protection from tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) which is carried by the Ixodes tick. Risk is seasonal (March to September) and anyone engaged in outdoor activities could be vulnerable. Inoculation is available from travel clinics – seek advice from your GP. Any medical treatment in Switzerland must be paid for; make sure you have adequate health insurance.
Languages spoken French, German (Schwyzerdütsch), Italian and Romansch, but English is widely understood in many popular areas.
Mountain huts More than 350 huts (manned, unmanned and bivouac shelters) are located throughout the Swiss Alps, most of which belong to the SAC. Reductions in overnight fees are given to members of European Alpine Clubs, and to holders of a reciprocal rights card available to members of the British Mountaineering Council (www.thebmc.co.uk).
National mountaineering organisation Schweizer Alpen-Club, Monbijoustrasse 61, Postfach, CH-3000 Bern 61, Switzerland www.swiss-sport.ch/sac-cas.
Tourist information Switzerland Tourism, 30 Bedford Street, London WC2E 9ED www.MySwitzerland.com.
Leave no litter and take your rubbish back to the valley for proper disposal.
Recycle plastic bottles, glass and aluminium drinks cans (recycling bins are found in many Swiss resorts).
Resist scree running; stick to footpaths and avoid taking shortcuts which can lead to soil erosion.
If there is no alternative but to defecate in the open, do so well away from paths and places where others might take shelter, and at least 30m from streams and lakes. Dig a hole, bury faeces and cover, and burn used toilet paper, taking care not to set fire to vegetation.
Do not pick wild flowers (many are protected, but even those that are not should be left for others to enjoy), and avoid disturbing wildlife.
Wild camping is officially forbidden in Switzerland, but permission is often granted by farmers to those who request it. To minimise the impact, pitch your tent for one night only, light no fires and leave the site as pristine as you found it.
