Читать книгу Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence - Laura E. Levine - Страница 169

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An illustration of Sigmund Freud’s theory on Id, Ego and Superego using the images of three girls.

The first image labeled Id shows the picture of a young girl holding a lot of colorful hard boiled candy to herself as she looks at the camera. The caption reads I want to eat all this candy—right now!

The second image labeled Ego shows the picture of a little girl eating a lollipop with the caption below that reads Lots of candy will make me sick. One lollipop will be all right.

The third image labeled Superego shows the picture of a girl holding colorful vegetables in both her arms as she grins at the camera. The caption reads A good girl wants to eat vegetables, not candy.

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A illustration of the classical conditioning responses of an infant before, during and after conditioning are seen here.

The Before Conditioning stage shows an illustration with two different stimuli. The first shows a baby, Little Albert, crying as an Unconditioned Response to the loud noise of a loudspeaker which is an Unconditioned Stimulus. The caption below reads, Little Albert hears a loud sound (the UCS) and cries with fear (the UCR).

The second shows Little Albert showing no fear to a Neutral Stimulus, a rat. The caption below reads, When Little Albert sees a white rat (neutral stimulus), he is unafraid and curious.

The During Conditioning stage shows an illustration how Little Albert responds to a Neutral Stimulus of a rat combined with the Unconditioned Stimulus of a loudspeaker. The illustration shows Little Albert crying as an Unconditioned Response to this combination. The caption below reads, Every time Little Albert is shown a white rat (neutral stimulus), he hears the loud sound (UCS) and cries with fear (UCR).

The After Conditioning stage shows Little Albert crying as a Conditioned Response (CR) to the stimulus of the rat which is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) hat has been combined with the loudspeaker during conditioning. The caption below reads, After several pairings of rat and loud sound, there is no loud sound but when Little Albert sees the white rat (CS), he cries with fear (CR).

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This figure shows two images each for the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on behavior.

The two images for positive reinforcement show a teacher helping a student in her class room. She is standing over his desk as he writes on a book. Another student is seen at her desk, in front of him. Both students have an apple on one edge of their desks.

The other image shows the same student smiling as he receives a trophy in his classroom. Another student and two adults are seen in the background. The caption below both images reads the following.

Positive reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to continue. Awarding a trophy for academic performance will make it more likely that this boy will continue to work hard in school.

The two images for negative reinforcement show a mother in her bathrobe, holding her crying baby close to her.

In the second image, the mother smiles at the camera as the baby is calm and comforted, in her arms.

The caption below both images reads, Negative reinforcement also makes a behavior more likely to continue. Listening to a crying baby is difficult. When this mother finds that holding her baby stops the crying she is likely to continue to hold her baby.

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This figure illustrates the effects of administering negative reinforcement in the form of punishment versus that of extinction on unwanted behavior.

These are illustrated by three images, one each for Punishment 1 and Punishment 2 and another for Extinction.

The illustration for Punishment 1 shows a young boy, kneeling and pouting, with toy blocks around him as a woman, also seated on the floor facing him, talks to him with her fore finger raised at him. The caption reads, Punishment 1, negative consequence. This boy receives a scolding for misbehaving.

The illustration for Punishment 2 shows a young girl seated at a table, sulking as she holds her face between her fists, elbows rested on the table, with an untouched plate of food, a full glass of milk and cutlery in front of her. The caption reads, Punishment 2, removal of a reward. This girl didn’t eat her dinner, therefore she doesn’t receive a dessert.

The illustration for Extinction shows a young boy yelling with his mouth wide open and his arms on either side, hands formed in fists, in the foreground while, his parents and another child are seated on a sofa in the background, ignoring him. The caption reads Extinction, ignoring temper tantrums leads to a decrease in their occurrence.

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A series of twelve photographs showing Albert Bandura's experiment on social learning theory.

The first row of four photographs show a woman and an inflated doll. In the first frame, the woman is sitting on her haunches and the doll is on the floor, in front of her. In the second frame, she is throwing the doll up in the air. In the third frame, she is hitting the doll with an object. In the last frame on the first row, the woman is kicking the doll away from her. The doll is seen flying through the air, across the room.

The second and third rows show two young children, a boy and a girl, each with an inflated doll. In the first frame the young boy and girl mimic the first frame showing the woman. They are both sitting on their haunches with the inflated doll in front on them on the floor. In the second frame, both children are throwing the doll away from them. In the third frame, both children are hitting the doll with a toy hammer and in the last frame, both children are seen kicking the doll to the ground.

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A neural network model of memory illustrating the way information is processed by the mind. In this illustration, the concept of Obesity is shown to be associated with several nodes and links by the mind. Each of these links are tabulated below under the respective node that the concept of Obesity is associated with in this illustration.

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This is an illustration of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model. The child at the center, develops within a nested set of influences divided into five systems as illustrated in this diagram by concentric circles around the child. These five systems each contain the following influences.

Microsystem

Family, Doctor’s office, Child care center and School.

Mesosystem

Church or Synagogue, Neighborhood play area and Extended family.

Exosystem

Friends of family, Mass media, Workplace, Parents, social services and health care, School board, Government agencies and Neighbors.

Macrosystem

Attitudes, customs, ideology of the culture.

Each of these circles show arrows between each set of influences showing that they all overlap as well as between the exosystem and the macrosystem.

The Chronosystem is represented as an arrow below the illustration that points from left to right with the word Time above it. The caption to the Chronosystem reads Environmental changes and transitions over the lifespan.

The caption below the illustration reads, Think of the various systems in the ecological systems model as a set of nested environments, but with interactions both within a level and across levels. All of these interconnected systems change as a function of time, as represented by the chronosystem.

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This illustration shows how the senses and action interact. The image on the left shows a pitcher of water with the handle on the left and the spout on the right. The image on the right shows a pitcher of water with the handle on the right and spout on the left. Both images have two buttons below them named No and Yes on the left and right respectively.

The caption below the images reads, people answer the question Is this a pitcher?, by pressing a button more quickly when the button for yes, is on the same side as the pitcher’s handle, whether the handle is on the left or the right. Why do you think this would happen? how does anticipated action affect our perception of objects we see?

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The images show the MRI images of the brain when a person thinks about an activity and actually does that activity.

The images on the left shows a panel of 15 images of the brain in five rows of three images a row, with various parts of the brain lit up in each MRI image.

The caption below the images reads, MRIs and fMRIs. The MRI image (left) shows pictures of successive sections through the brain from the back to the front. The fMRI image (right) shows where the blood is flowing through the brain when the person thinks about an activity and actually does that activity.

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The images show 3D fMRI images of the brain when a person thinks about an activity and actually does that activity.

The image on the right shows four 3D images of the brain at various angles, with different parts highlighted in a bright color showing blood flow through the brain at different points.

The caption below the images reads, MRIs and fMRIs. The MRI image (left) shows pictures of successive sections through the brain from the back to the front. The fMRI image (right) shows where the blood is flowing through the brain when the person thinks about an activity and actually does that activity.

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Four scatter plots showing examples of strong and weak, positive and negative correlations.

The first graph shows data points in a close cluster along a line that runs diagonally upward from left to right starting at zero, above the x axis. This graph shows an example of a strong positive correlation.

The second graph shows data points in a close cluster along a line that runs diagonally downward from left to right starting at zero, below the x axis. This graph shows an example of a strong negative correlation.

The third graph shows data points in a dispersed cluster along a line that runs diagonally upward from left to right starting at zero. This graph shows an example of a weak positive correlation. Some points are seen below the x axis and to the left of the y axis as well.

The fourth graph shows data points in a dispersed cluster along a line that runs diagonally downward from left to right starting at zero. This graph shows an example of a weak negative correlation. Some points are seen above the x axis and to the left of the y axis as well.