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1 Barkun, M., A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America, 2nd edn., Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013, pp. 1–14; Cubitt, G., ‘Conspiracy Myths and Conspiracy Theories’, Journal of Anthropological Society of Oxford 20(1), 1989: pp. 12–26. 2 See Oberhauser, C., ‘Nesta Helen Webster (1876–1960)’, in Reinalter, H. (ed.) Handbuch der Verschwörungstheorien, Leipzig: Salier, 2018, pp. 319–26. 3 Webster, N. H., The French Revolution: A Study in Democracy, London: Constable, 1919; The French Terror and Russian Bolshevism, London: Boswell, 1920; World Revolution: The Plot Against Civilization, London: Small, Maynard & Company, 1921; Secret Societies and Subversive Movements, London: Boswell, 1924. For an analysis of her conspiracy theories and their impact, see Lee, M. F., Conspiracy Rising: Conspiracy Thinking and American Public Life, Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011. 4 See Olmsted, K. S., Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 4. 5 Von Bieberstein, J. R., Die These von der Verschwörung, 1776–1945: Philosophen, Freimaurer, Juden, Liberale und Sozialisten als Verschwörer gegen die Sozialordnung, Bern: Lang, 1976. 6 Lincoln, A., Campaign Speech, 16 June 1858, Springfield, IL, at http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/house-divided-speech. 7 Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy, p. 6. 8 Pfahl-Traughber, A., ‘“Bausteine” zu einer Theorie über “Verschwörungstheorien”: Definition, Erscheinungsformen, Funktionen und Ursachen’, in Reinhalter, H. (ed.) Verschwörungstheorien: Theorie – Geschichte – Wirkung, Innsbruck: StudienVerlag, 2002, p. 31. 9 Pfahl-Traughber, ‘“Bausteine” zu einer Theorie über “Verschwörungstheorien”’, p. 31.10 Keeley, B. L., ‘Of Conspiracy Theories’, in Coady, D. (ed.) Conspiracy Theories: The Philosophical Debate, rev. edn., Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006 [1999], p. 58.11 Grimes, D. R., ‘On the Viability of Conspiratorial Beliefs’, PLOS ONE 11(3), 2016, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147905.12 Keeley, ‘Of Conspiracy Theories’, p. 58.13 Byford, J., Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, p. 33.14 Popper, K., The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx, and the Aftermath, 4th and rev. edn., Vol. 2 of The Open Society and Its Enemies, London: Routledge, 1962 [1945], p. 93 (italics in original).15 Popper, The High Tide of Prophecy, pp. 94, 95 (italics in original).16 For an overview of the conspiracy theories on the assassination, see Knight, P., The Kennedy Assassination, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007, pp. 75–104.17 Many of these superconspiracy theories were first published in Steve Weissman’s anthology Big Brother and the Holding Company: The World behind Watergate, Palo Alto: Ramparts Press, 1974. Jim Hougan presents Nixon as a victim of the Secret Service who staged the affair to keep a CIA-operated call girl ring secret. See Hougan, Secret Agenda: Watergate, Deep Throat, and the CIA, New York: Random House, 1984. For a discussion of how the Senate Committee and the journalist tried to avoid being perceived as conspiracy theorists, see Thalmann, K., The Stigmatization of Conspiracy Theory since the 1950s: ‘A Plot to Make Us Look Foolish’, London: Routledge, 2019, pp. 153–8.18 Cassam, Q., Conspiracy Theories, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019, p. 7.19 McKenzie-McHarg, A., ‘Conspiracy Theory: the Nineteenth-Century Prehistory of a Twentieth-Century Concept’, in Uscinski, J. (ed.) Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019, pp. 62–81.20 Knight, P., Conspiracy Culture: From Kennedy to The X Files, London: Routledge, 2000, p. 11.21 Fenster, M., Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture, 2nd edn., Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008, p. 242; Herman, E., ‘Einwanderungs-Chaos: Was ist der Plan?’, Wissensmanufaktur, 22 August 2015, at http://www.wissensmanufaktur.net/einwanderungs-chaos.22 ‘187 radical organizations’, in the comments to C. Spiering, ‘John Podesta Fuels Russian Conspiracy Theory: Urges Electoral College to Revisit Election’, Breitbart, 12 December 2016, https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2016/12/12/john-podesta-fuels-russian-conspiracy-theory-urges-electoral-college-revisit-election/23 See, for example, this article, which also reproduces images of the memo: ‘CIA Memo 1967: CIA Coined & Weaponized the Label “Conspiracy Theory”’, at https://steemit.com/history/@thelastheretik/cia-coined-and-weaponized-the-label-conspiracy-theory.24 See, for example, Räikkä, J. and Basham, L., ‘Conspiracy Theory Phobia’, in Uscinski, J. (ed.) Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them, New York: Oxford University Press, 2019, pp. 178–86.25 Bratich, J. Z., Conspiracy Panics: Political Rationality and Popular Culture, Albany: SUNY Press, 2008, p. 4.26 An entire Wikipedia article is dedicated to this alleged connection: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_and_al-Qaeda_link_allegations.27 For the classic definition of conspiracy theories as counter-narratives, see Fiske, J., Media Matters: Everyday Culture and Political Change, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. For studies that demonstrate that outside of the West conspiracy theories are often the official version of events, see, for example, Borenstein, E., Plots against Russia: Conspiracy and Fantasy after Socialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019; and Gray, M., Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World: Sources and Politics, London: Routledge, 2010.28 Boyer, P. S. and Nissenbaum, S., Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.29 Pfahl-Traughber, ‘“Bausteine” zu einer Theorie über “Verschwörungstheorien”’, p. 31.30 Hepfer, K., Verschwörungstheorien: Eine philosophische Kritik der Unvernunft, Bielefeld: Transcript, 2015, p. 24.