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INTRODUCTION

SEAN COTTER

Michael Henry Heim translated, taught translation, and advocated for professional and academic translators. He understood translation deeply and his work encompassed translation broadly, making him a central figure for late twentieth-century literature and translation studies. Any route to understanding the contemporary position of translation in the United States must pass through his life and work. He mastered a mystifyingly large number of languages, from Czech and Russian to Croatian, Dutch, Danish, Spanish, and Hungarian. As the translator of writers such as Milan Kundera, Bohumil Hrabal, Thomas Mann, and Péter Esterházy, Heim created Central European literature in English, giving us not only the texts but also the notion that these books from disparate languages formed a whole. Heim instituted one of the first workshops in literary translation and developed a translator training method that produced not applied linguists, but writers. He advanced translator training at the same time that he improved the working conditions for translators, by arguing for the status of translation as academic scholarship, lobbying publishers to produce translations, and endowing a fund to support translation projects. It is difficult to imagine a translator’s life more dedicated or successful. This collection is a biography and appreciation, a portrait of a man between languages who expanded the possibilities of a life in translation.

The collection demonstrates this range of possibility in its form. Rather than a single-author biography, our book is a composite, a thick description of Heim’s career from both his own perspective and those of the many authors, translators, and publishers whose work he affected. By placing one version of Heim’s influence alongside another, our approach to biography resembles the way we might compare a translation to an original, in order to see the translator’s work come to light in the space between. Heim ranged across many domains and is important to many people. The collection of voices in this volume, therefore, is modeled on Heim’s own definition of translation. “A good translation,” he stated, “will allow a person who has read the work in the original and a person who has read the work in translation to have an intelligent conversation about it.”¹ He emphasizes not narrow textual questions but the beginning of a dialog, the international community of readers a translation creates. Anyone who met Heim would recognize in this definition his characteristic, expansive generosity, a movement toward inclusion. This collection is not a Festschrift, but a conversation.² This collection emulates both his translation practice and his generosity, by telling his story in many voices, which come from the many areas where Heim made translation important.

Heim’s work was dedicated to improving our practice and understanding of translation, and a book dedicated to him allows us to improve the field of Translation Studies. A focus on the complex constitution of a translator has been lacking from the wave of interest in translation that began in the 1970s and swelled in the past two decades. Heim was a part of this wave, which shifted translation from a domain of language training and linguistics (the field of his graduate work) to comparative literature, cultural studies, and creative writing. The first two fields, in particular, have become allergic to biographical approaches. Works such as Siting Translation by Tejaswini Niranjana, The Practice of Diaspora by Brent Hayes Edwards, or The Translator’s Invisibility by Lawrence Venuti have documented the roles translators play in resistance to colonial and patriarchal power structures, networks of cultural exchange, or challenges to the primacy of authorship, while focusing overwhelmingly on the power structure, network, or signature, at the expense of the translator figure. Emblematic of this elision is Paul de Man’s 1983 definition: “the relationship of translator to the original is the relationship between language and language.”³ The equation of the translator and language is an indication of Translation Studies’ lagging attachment to its roots in structural linguistics. In the same way that Saussure’s sign gains meaning only within the context of a larger language system, the translator has been appreciated as an element within these power networks. Only recently have studies addressed “the great scandal of translation” that Gayatri Spivak identifies as “the obliteration of the figure of the translator.”⁴ A more humanist approach should ask how a life endows a person with the complex set of skills literary translation requires, and in what ways might a person live through translation? Although some new works have come to this human focus—such as the collection Barbara Wright: Translation as Art, edited by Debra Kelly and Madeleine Renouard, or Iliya Troyanov’s fictional biography of Richard Burton, The Collector of Worlds, or even the documentary films Translating Edwin Honig: A Poet’s Alzheimer’s (by Alan Berliner) or Nurith Aviv’s Traduire, or Vadim Jendreyko’s Woman with the Five Elephants, about Svetlana Geier, translator of Dostoyevsky into German—translators’ lives rarely receive more than a portrait, not a book-length study.

Even this intellectual context, however, has not diminished our interest in the author biography. Translators lag behind our long-standing interest in authors, who seem more creative and more miraculous than a person who, we might naïvely think, simply copies a creative work down in another language. The author’s life promises the key to unlock his works. “Ultimately what the biographer seeks to elicit,” writes Richard Ellmann in his landmark Golden Codgers, “is less the events of a writer’s life than the ‘mysterious armature,’ as Mallarmé called it, which binds the creative work.”⁵ Yet even Ellmann’s translation of Mallarmé in this passage relies on a definition of “armature” as “skeleton,” which appears in English only in 1903, five years after the poet’s death. Earlier uses of the word refer to defensive “armament,” an exoskeleton. What mendicant French sculptor translated this new definition into English, shifting the skeleton from outside to in? It is only thanks to that translator that the armature is hidden from view and becomes mysterious. If creation is mysterious, surely recreation is even more so. The translator’s life binds together not one work, but two. The mystery of creation meets the impossible act of translating, a doubly improbable transfer of a text into a foreign system. The Man Between enables us better to imagine the translator who lives between works, erecting the armature that binds a creative work to another work in a different language.

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Part of the significance of Heim and his work lies in the confluence of two key cultural events of the second half of the twentieth century: the great wave of literature translated from Central European languages and the rise of literary translation within the American academy. Heim is at the center of both of these broad shifts in our collective attention, similar changes in the value we place on “minor” countries and a “secondary” literary practice. This connection is far from accidental, Harish Trivedi has argued, since the transformations of literature wrought by Central European texts were a driving force behind the deeper consideration of translation.⁶

As is still the norm today, Heim studied Czech only as a “second Slavic” language, as part of his doctoral work on Russian linguistics. But on travelling to Czechoslovakia in 1965, he found a culture so lively and attractive that he decided to make it his specialty, and he returned to Prague just three years later, without knowing he would land in the midst of the 1968 Soviet invasion. As Heim recalls in this book, the Soviet soldiers did not know Czech (the Latin alphabet led some to believe they were in Romania), and few Czechs knew Russian. Thanks to the structure of American Slavic studies, the young American scholar was in high demand; he traveled the city, interpreting between the soldiers and Czech people. In the end, he was featured on German television. It is a typical Heim story: an amazing performance in three languages, none of them English.

The United States experienced a rush of interest in Central and East European literature following the Prague Spring, an interest prefigured by the wave of new Czech films and a growing counter-cultural interest in the United States for works from other countries. Unlike the contemporaneous Latin American Boom, the Central European wave featured exceptional diversity in its original languages: a list of mutually unintelligible Slavic languages, as well as several other language families (in the case of Hungarian, German, Romanian, and Albanian). Heim’s competence in so many disparate languages is stunning. While there were languages he did not cover (such as Albanian, Polish, Bulgarian, and Slovene), he made do with Czech, French, German, Italian, Hungarian, Slovak, Russian, and what was then called Serbo-Croatian. It is no wonder to read in Michelle Woods’s essay that in this moment, when presses were searching for translators of East European literature, Heim appeared to Knopf as “the genius fallen from the sky.”

A leader of his generation, Heim brought a library of Central European texts into English. Perhaps best known as the translator of The Unbearable Lightness of Being, he also translated, from Czech alone, three other books by Kundera, three by Bohumil Hrabal, and more from Karel Čapek, Jan Neruda, and Josef Hiršal. Then there are the dozens of translations from other languages, including, from the Serbian, two books by Danilo Kiš, Miloš Crnjanski’s Migrations, and Aleksandar Tišma’s The Book of Blam; from the Russian, a book of Chekhov’s major plays and a selection of Chekhov’s correspondence, as well as one novel and one book of prose nonfiction by Vasily Aksyonov; from the German, plays by Bertolt Brecht, a prize-winning retranslation of Thomas Mann’s Death In Venice, a best-selling book on mathematics by Hans Magnus Enzensberger (whose math he corrected), and Günter Grass’s memoir My Century, to choose only a few titles from his much longer bibliography. His achievement brings to mind T. S. Eliot’s description of Ezra Pound, whom he called “the inventor of Chinese poetry for our time.”⁷ By bringing works from a host of languages into a single language, English, Heim created a textual Central Europe that otherwise existed only in the imaginations of writers separated by their languages. The idea of a cultural zone, drawing on its Austro-Hungarian connection, took shape in English translation. Long before Kundera, in “The Tragedy of Central Europe,” lamented the fact that “the West looks at Central Europe and sees only Eastern Europe,” Heim had created the body of imaginative works that enabled Kundera’s English-language readers to understand his point.⁸

But Heim did more for readers of this region than pave the way for this landmark essay. Heim was on the board of Cross Currents, the journal that published critical essays and original work by Kundera and many others, creating yet another version of Central Europe in English, yet another community in translation. Cross Currents brought together defining cultural figures—Czesław Miłosz, Vaclav Havel, Adam Michnik, Joseph Brodsky, Susan Sontag—from both sides of the West/East cultural divide. His work for this journal was followed by his tenure on the board of Northwestern University Press, which published many significant works from Central Europe in translation, with an important emphasis on new work after the historic events of 1989. He worked to expand yet another journal, East European Politics and Societies, to include the arts and literary culture. He was the founder of the Association for the Translation of Central European Literatures, which paired native speakers of English and Central European languages in a systematic attempt to evaluate the existing works and to initiate needed translations. This list of involvement follows a pattern: Heim worked not only on translations but also on the publishing systems in which translations moved. Far more than books, then, is the translation oeuvre of Michael Heim. He labored to create a translation culture.

Heim taught Slavic languages and literatures and authored an important Czech textbook, but his pedagogical influence extends beyond his work in a specific language. Heim was also a leader in the development of the graduate seminar in literary translation, which was structured to support training in translating any language into English. These workshops were born of the same increased interest in translation that enabled the Latin American Boom and Central European wave. Developed at the same time as, and modeled upon, the creative writing workshop, these courses began in 1964 at the University of Iowa and appeared soon after at the University of Texas (1965) the University of Arkansas (1972), and the University of Texas at Dallas (1978), reaching UCLA in the mid-1980s. As the interviews with Heim and Maureen Freely’s contribution in this volume describe in more detail, these workshops marked a fundamental change in approach to translation pedagogy: a new focus on the literary quality of English. Within the American academy, translation before this time had been the purview of either foreign-language departments (modern and classical) or linguistics. This background tended to measure the translation against the standard of the original, and the translations produced are identifiable by the original language’s imprint. The workshop setting, while concerned with the adequacy of the translation to the original, measures the language of the translation against the norms of literary English. The resulting translations are marked by this professional competence.

Heim’s involvement follows the pattern established in his Central European translations: expansion beyond the confines of his own beginnings, toward a broader community. He moved from the Czech and German to almost all the Central European languages, and from publishing his own translations to the review and advocacy of the vast field of Central European translators. Likewise, Heim extended his concern for translator training beyond his own classroom. In 2004, a group of graduate students and Heim inaugurated a national graduate-student conference on literary translation, which was subsequently held at several schools beyond UCLA. As Esther Allen’s essay demonstrates in more detail, he was a powerful force for the recognition of translation as creative scholarship within the American academy, resulting in that organization’s endorsement of translation for consideration for tenure. The most surprising project, however, was his least visible. Heim endowed a fund to defray the cost of translation through grants paid directly to translators. Administered by PEN America, the establishment was anonymous until after Heim’s death, and is now awarded annually as the PEN/Heim Translation Fund. The revelation of this endowment turns out to be absolutely in keeping with Heim’s work for the profession of translation. At every turn in his career, we see Heim expanding the range of translation, the status of translation, and the professional possibilities for literary translation, but doing so with quiet competence and humility before the great edifice of literature.

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The three sections of The Man Between follow a similar trajectory to the one we have imagined shaping Heim’s professional life, from the person, to personal portraits, to his influence on the culture. The first section, “The Man,” begins with extensive selections from a series of interviews Heim gave in 1998, in four languages, to a group of scholars in Timişoara, Romania. Revised in part by Heim, these are the most extensive autobiographical texts he ever produced, telling the story of his childhood, education, and awakening interest in Central Europe, as well as providing comments on translation and translation pedagogy. The interviews are followed by a transcription of his 2011 talk at the Center for the Art of Translation, a systematic overview of recent translation history and a reflection on current translation criticism. His bibliography, compiled by Esther Allen, extends well beyond the modest account Heim gives in the interviews, to document a record of public literary engagement far above the norm.

The pages of “Community” unite portraits of Heim by those who knew him, worked with him, and simply enjoyed his company. These include eulogies from his memorial service, attended by hundreds in 2012 in Los Angeles, as well as Andrei Codrescu’s remembrance on National Public Radio. Each essay presents a distinct perspective on Heim, including the experience of Dubravka Ugrešić, whom Heim not only translated but befriended, and translated as an expression of friendship. Michael Flier’s account gives details of Heim’s own, groundbreaking tenure case. The essays capture Heim reading while walking to his university office, collecting recycling, or celebrating events in his friends’ lives. This collection of intimate perspectives portrays the large circle of personal friends Heim developed, a community of literary souls.

The final section, “Impact,” considers the importance of Heim’s work across a range of fields. Russell Valentino describes the rise of translation within contemporary Slavic studies. Heim’s collaborator on the journal East European Politics & Societies, Andrzej Tymowski, argues for the importance of social science colleagues translating each other’s work across national boundaries. Maureen Freely documents the pedagogical techniques she learned from Heim while instituting her own literary translation workshop. Against the backdrop of Heim’s publishing career, Michelle Woods examines his nuts-and-bolts choices in two of his most famous Czech translations, from Hrabal and Kundera. A translator from Czech who first published in 1995, Alex Zucker considers the importance of Heim’s generation for contemporary Central European translators. Sean Cotter lists the vast cultural reverberations and permutations of Heim’s most famous translation choice, the title “The Unbearable Lightness of Being.” The case for translator biographies is made by Breon Mitchell, who outlines the archival resources he developed at the Lilly Library in Bloomington, Indiana, including papers from Heim. Esther Allen articulates the theory in practice that Heim’s life exemplified, in the face of a difficult academic climate, to advance translation as a transformative cultural force.

Work on this book began in 2011, a year before Heim’s passing. Completed in 2014, the work is in part a memorial, partaking in the familiar tropes of loss in translation. But we believe Heim would be the first to object to a volume centered solely on him. Such a book could be said to miss the point of a career spent helping other authors to be read and other translators to come to light. The broader aim of this book is to collect the voices of the community created by his translations: not only his friends but also those editors of literature and scholars of politics, those readers of novels and students of literary English, and those fellow translators who follow the paths Heim blazed. In doing so we advocate, with Heim, for the mysteriousness and inherent interest of the lives of translators, expanded methods for reading translation, and the importance of translation in our culture.

1 Interview with Louise Steinman, “Translator Remains Faithful to His ‘Unfaithful’ Art,” Los Angeles Times (30 September 2001), E1.

2 . . . especially since that book already exists: Between Texts, Languages, and Cultures: A Festschrift for Michael Henry Heim; Edited by Craig Cravens, Masako U. Fidler, and Susan C. Kresin (Slavica Publishing, 2008).

3 The Resistance to Theory (University of Minnesota Press, 1983) 81.

4 Quoted in Esther Allen, ed. To Be Translated or Not To Be (Barcelona: Institut Ramon Llull, 2007) 28 – 29.

5 Golden Codgers (Oxford UP, 1973), x.

6 “Translating culture vs. cultural translation,” In Translation – Reflections, Refractions, Transformations, Paul St-Pierre and Prafulla C. Kar, eds. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2007), 277–287.

7 “Introduction,” Selected Poems by Ezra Pound (Knopf, 1928), 14.

8 The New York Review of Books 31:7 (April 24, 1984), 35.