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Colour lithograph by Sullivan. The symbolic fall of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, as the Eagle of the French 45th Line Infantry is taken by Sergeant Ewart of the Scots Greys.

By Michael Rayner

The Napoleonic Wars is the name given to the period of warfare primarily between France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria from 1804 – when Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France – to 1815 when the war finished at the end of the Campaign of the Hundred Days. Some writers would start the period with Napoleon becoming First Consul of France in 1799. In addition, the Napoleonic Wars were an extension of the French Revolutionary Wars, begun in 1792 and continuing throughout the remainder of the 1790s. In many ways this period of virtually unrelenting warfare can be seen as a world war, 100 years before the start of the more widely recognized World War I. Fighting against France and her sister republics, satellite states and allies was widespread, not only across the entire continent of Europe, but into the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. The war of 1812 between Britain and the USA is also directly related to the conflict with Napoleon, while naval warfare took place around the globe.

The wars follow a pattern of rise and fall, with Napoleon scoring a string of brilliant victories against the armies of the opposing coalition powers, before experiencing a general decline and defeats for his armies until his final downfall at Waterloo. Throughout the period Napoleon was unable to make headway against British naval power, especially after the battle of Trafalgar (1805). On land his early successes were due in large part to the superiority of his armies, fighting in a more flexible way to that of his enemies and with greater vigour, thanks to changes in warfare during the 1790s. Napoleon’s generalship also played a part in this success, although writers disagree as to the extent of this as a key factor, some preferring to single out the weaknesses of the allied generals and their armies -- or even Napoleon’s good luck. Whatever the causes, his armies won a series of stunning victories: at Austerlitz against the Austrians and Russians in 1805; at Jena and Auerstädt against Prussia in 1806; versus Russia at Friedland in 1807; against Austria at Wagram in 1809.

The armies of the coalition had started to reorganize their forces and tactics on the French model by 1809, leading to harder won victories for Napoleon. He overreached himself after deciding to invade Portugal in 1807 and then imposing French rule on Spain in 1808, events which led to the Peninsular War. Part of the reason for this was to impose his Continental System of trade embargoes against Britain, which later led to his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. In the Peninsular War, Britain was able to gain a foothold for her army in Europe, fighting alongside Portuguese and Spanish forces, leading to a string of victories in the field for General Arthur Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington), including those at Talavera, Salamanca and Vittoria.

Despite these setbacks for his forces, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, leading to the hard-fought battle of Borodino and the capture of Moscow, before a catastrophic retreat. Following this disaster, the coalition opposing him strengthened, acting in a more coordinated way than before, leading to the Battle of Leipzig, or the Battle of the Nations, in 1813. A defensive campaign in France could not prevent defeat and abdication for Napoleon. Exiled to Elba in the Mediterranean in May 1814, he escaped in February 1815 to become emperor once more. This led to the Campaign of the Hundred Days and his ultimate defeat at Waterloo, bringing to an end not only his rule, but an era.