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1 Acquiring language – The Playful Approach
Оглавление1.1 Absorbing another language
1.3 Play as a form of learning
1.1 Absorbing another language
A young child’s ability to absorb language unconsciously, and seemingly effortlessly, is quite remarkable. It is even more astounding that the same young child, if given the right opportunities, can absorb two or three languages at more or less the same time, and use them with his or her different co-speakers correctly.
When I was 3 years old, I spoke three different languages to three different people. I am told I never mixed up the speakers. I just talked, but I didn’t know I was speaking different languages until I was much older and my family told me. I can still speak these languages.
(Japanese lady, aged 45)
Young children, if circumstances are right for them, are innate, unconscious language learners. They are conscious of learning about the content of an activity, but not the language (or languages) they are using. At 5 or 6 years old they may tell you how many languages they speak and give examples, but they are not conscious of actually learning them in the way an adult is.
Children refine their language-learning strategies as they mature, depending on the type and quality of language support within their experiences. They then have the ability to reuse their language-learning strategies unconsciously, if motivated to learn another language – such as English. Most do this with confidence if they are shepherded by adults to take part in enabling activities, and are exposed to a similar quality of language support to that of their L1 acquisition.
By the age of 6, young children are familiar with most of the structures of their L1, although they are still absorbing new words and phrases. During pre-school children may have been introduced to different forms of spoken English or they may start an English programme during the first years of lower primary school. In all cases they innately expect to reuse their language-learning strategies to absorb spoken English through listening to it, as they take part in meaningful, playful activities. To young children learning language is not a task – it is not instructed, even if it is adult led. Young children have not yet developed the cognitive maturity to understand and use English taught as an abstract, grammar-based subject. Most of them cannot yet recognise the difference between a verb and a noun in their L1!
1.2 Transitions
Teaching methods in the first years of compulsory schooling depend on local society and cultural expectations. Parents and extended families often have culturally influenced opinions about how and when children should learn another language – in this case English.
Transitions (by which we mean the changes incurred by moving between schooling levels throughout compulsory education) alter the child’s administrative status as a student. Transition is based on the child’s date of birth rather than his or her level of maturity and readiness for change in methodological approach. There are few examples of free-flow schooling, where status and individual development are coordinated, making transition smoother for the child.
Transition from one school level to another generally entails an immediate adjustment to a more abstract style of learning, with teacher-led instruction and new expectations – even though there may be no change in the child’s cognitive maturity, which continues to develop at its own rate following well-researched milestones.
The challenges in transitioning from home to pre-school are not likely to be great due to the close collaboration between family and pre-school staff. Both use similar supportive language patterns which are understood and expected by a young child. There is, however, in many societies, often a more marked difference between educational methods used in pre-school and those used in primary school (the first year of more formal compulsory education). This change is felt, if not verbalised, by the child in:
teacher–child relationships
types and use of language
types of teacher instruction.
There is a new distance between the teacher and child, which young children feel. Gone are the many opportunities for caring, intimate, one-to-one dialogues with the teacher.
Although there may be a change in teaching style when a child enters primary school, teachers still have to focus on increasing the level of spoken English in preparation for the introduction of formal literacy, reading, spelling and writing. To do this successfully, teachers need to continue planning enabling activities in which children can use their existing language-learning strategies. Without these opportunities children find it difficult to pick up language to their full potential.
Parents virtualise start of normal school by uniform and a school bag. Play is seen as recreation and children are not sent to school to play.
(Stewart)
Transition to compulsory schooling is ritualised within many societies through material possessions like a uniform and a school bag, as well as in daily language within the extended family. Family discussions and expectations have changed to match the entry into formal schooling. Family members might say You are going to big school now. Listen to what the teacher says. Put your hand up if you want to ask a question.
Parents’ comments about their young child’s changed status are often influenced by their own school experience. Some parents support their children through transition by talking about their new English experiences with them in L1. Parents’ understanding and mediation during transition to compulsory schooling is important as parents know, intimately, how their child learns as they have shepherded their language development since birth.
1.3 Play as a form of learning
Play is the highest form of learning and helps children to apply what they learn in an integrated way.
(Bruce)
Incorporating opportunities for play within new activities helps children become more confident, as well as leading them to become more divergent, reflective, inventive and persistent thinkers.
As the teacher’s role is to provide a selection of enabling opportunities in which to acquire English, the atmosphere and teaching style in English lessons may be different from content-based lessons like Maths or Science. Some parents feel that since their children are now in compulsory education with a timetable divided into major subjects, instruction should now be more formal and should begin to resemble secondary school methods. Their reaction when their child refers to ‘playing’ in the English lesson can be of annoyance and they may openly criticise the teacher for not ‘teaching’, saying something like I did not send my child to primary school to play! Play is for break time. I expect my child to learn English.
‘Play’ is an umbrella term. In English the word play is broad and the meaning can be confusing. It can be used to talk about participating in a wide range of activities:
play football (fixed rules and expectations)
play time (free choice recreation at pre-school and primary school)
play ‘Snakes and Ladders’ or ‘Grandmother’s Footsteps’ (culture-based children’s games with a set of known rules)
play the piano (the formalised learning of a musical instrument, following music rules)
play on a games console / tablet / smartphone
The concept of play and its role in childhood differs from culture to culture; it can also differ between boys and girls. In some societies individual play is not valued as a way of learning, so some young children may not have developed skills to play by themselves and may wait for instructions from parents, teachers or other adults.
In a child’s mind, the physical activity of play is like adults’ work – children are intrinsically motivated to physically try out things, to find out how they work. However; to adults play can be seen as frivolous since it has no obvious aim, and in some cases has no adult presence.
Play is learning through doing: taking part in shared activities with a supportive adult or older child whose language the child can absorb unconsciously. A division between play and work only exists in the minds of adults who think in terms of formal teaching and instruction. For young children the two are blurred until the age of 5 or 6, when children begin to become aware of actually ‘learning’. Any distinction made by children might arise from external symbols of a formal approach (such as sitting at a desk or using a textbook) but not from the content of an activity. Even if the content is more formal (such as a spelling test), playful use of voice and language by the teacher can make children feel that the experience is fun and they may even describe it to others as playing a game.
The main characteristic of play — whether of child or adult — is not its content but its mode. Play is an approach to action, not a form of activity.
(Bruner in Moyles)
A skilled teacher, like a young child’s mother, regularly turns routine activities into what children think of as play, simply by using playful language. Furthermore, the playful nature of many language-learning activities is accentuated when contrasted with the more formal teacher-led instruction of other school subjects. This approach may account for the popularity of English teachers in primary schools.
1.4 The Playful Approach
To teach using the Playful Approach is demanding and tiring. The playfulness results in teacher–child bonding, but in a more mature and respectful way than in the pre-school years. This teacher–child relationship can contribute to the beginning of life-long attitudes to English, and such attitudes are formed early – before the age of 8 or 9. Later in life, adults often recall the name of their first English teacher.
The Playful Approach needs to be underpinned by:
a hidden syllabus, influencing programme planning (including tutor-talk)
assessments (short within the lesson, and longer after the lesson)
flexibility (to respond to individual children’s interests)
knowledge about words and language
modelling the use of new language and how to interact socially
enthusiasm for discovery and learning language.
Language needs action as an accompaniment or the situation has no meaning for the children.
(Krashen)
Motivation is vital for all learning, whether it involves new or familiar content. Through the Playful Approach teachers can motivate and remotivate – although remotivation should be monitored as it can have a negative effect if overused.
Parents of very young children still learning L1 are skilled at inserting playfulness into regular activities to make each day’s routine fun and motivating. Parents become adept at turning a routine like getting dressed into a simple game by inserting playful language, as well as using different voices and intonation to add surprise, wonder or suspense. Many parents say playful things like:
Does the sock go here? [putting it on the child’s hand]
No, no, silly me!
You show me where it goes!
That’s right! Good!
Where’s the other sock? Here it is …
How many socks are there? Two or three?
Let’s count …
This approach, used innately by parents, must be transferred to English teaching so that young children can reuse their self-language-learning skills effectively to absorb the new language. The Playful Approach in class involves the use of playful language during an activity to turn it into a fun and interactive experience for boys and girls. Although playful language relates to the content, it does not alter the content or the content-related language.
The Playful Approach can be used when presenting new material and also when re-presenting material to be consolidated. In planning an activity, it is important to also plan the language that goes with it, including any accompanying playful language. Of course any plan needs to be flexible, adapting to children’s reactions. Without planning language input, opportunities to extend language can be missed.
As the young child becomes more mature and lesson content becomes more structured, the degree of playfulness needed to motivate gradually decreases, limiting the use of the Playful Approach to the introduction of new material and routine remotivating activities.
1.4.1 Language techniques for the Playful Approach
Language can be adapted to fit individuals, pairs, groups or a class.
Language is supported by a hidden syllabus – a structured guide to increase acquisition. Teacher-talk can be flexible to follow children’s interests and needs. Tutor-talks explaining new material need to be pre-prepared, so information can be focused and structured.
Language motivates by inserting suspense, surprise, mystery. It remotivates, when focus has been lost, by extending short attention spans.
Language arouses curiosity, inserts wonder, challenges ‘how’ – leading to critical thinking and creativity (for example, Imagine if there was no sun? What if …?).
Language encourages effort (for example, Try again, I know you can do it That was good but next time let’s do it better.).
Language challenges (for example, If we have no electricity, what shall we do?).
Language encourages enthusiasm (for example, Wow, that’s great? I like that).
Language supports exploring and discovery (for example, Look at the size of this whale!).
Language inserts humour – play within play – arousing and creating it, and responding to it.
With regard to translations, these should typically only be given once so that children have to focus and listen carefully. Where possible, teachers need to develop children’s gist understanding – a technique they are still developing in L1 to follow new ideas. Where further translation is needed, teachers often find that one child eagerly translates for other children. This means the teacher often has no need to revert to using L1. If there is no ‘child translator’ the teacher can repeat, supporting with more modelling. Children usually understand more than they can say.
1.4.2 The Playful Approach within games
Games sometimes lack speed but by including playful language English teachers can regain focus and momentum without changing the game content. For example, they could say Whose turn is it now? Ok … who can find the ball? The language teacher who includes playful language in games:
creates suspense and excitement (for example, Will I get a six? … YES!)
adds energy to speed up formal games (for example, How many have you got? Oh, Toru can get more. Hurry, I’m next. No, sorry, it’s your turn.)
focusses on both winners and losers (for example, You did well. Next time I think you might win.)
creates an enjoyable game-like atmosphere (for example, Oh, can you get a red one? Let’s see …)
sums up progress regularly and predicts possible outcomes, sometimes incorrectly, to amuse (for example, Now everyone has five cards. I know who is going to get six cards first. It’s …!).
Much of the content and ways of working in English games and activities may be unfamiliar to children, as culturally they may be quite different from L1 games. However, at a later stage children like to prove their ownership of an activity or game by showing they can manage it by themselves and take control, even if the teacher has initiated play and set the scene. Adults need to respect this and patiently wait during the initial tries, whilst the child self-corrects through trial and error, rather than jumping in with the correct solution. Overt correction of game playing in front of others can dent children’s pride and demotivate! Children need to reflect, reconsider and redo if they are to be creative.
Once children know how to play a game well, they often act as home-play tutors to their family when playing games in L1 or English. Much to the delight and amusement of parents, their children naturally insert the games at home.
1.4.3 Poor play experiences
Teachers need to continually observe, assess and record children’s type and level of play and be ready to add guidance and add further challenge where needed. Where play is repetitive and at a low level of cognition, the teacher needs to get involved by sensitively interacting with new language or a relevant new object. This will stimulate interest and also scaffold a child’s next level of cognition.
Where teachers are not sensitive to children’s low-level satisfaction and achievement in an activity or game, children can lose interest and can easily become bored or frustrated, saying I don’t want to play. I don’t like this. Interest should always be restimulated before the end of the lesson, since a lack of volition can easily spread to attitudes at home and carry on to the next lesson. Loss of interest can also foster parents’ belief that English lessons are nothing but play and that their child needs more formal instruction.
The art of a skilled teacher is getting the right balance, by providing structure whilst supporting autonomy.
(Stewart)
1.5 Free-choice time
Young children need repetition. Children, without adult help or intervention, repeat games or activities until they gain ownership and control over them. This can most easily be seen in the playground during break time where – either by themselves, in pairs or in a small group – children play the same game with the same rules over and over again. Children need opportunities to experience repetition like this in the English classroom and also at home if they are to gain ownership and control.
‘Flow’ is a state of complete immersion in an activity.
(Csikszentmihalyi)
‘Free play’ was valued by Froebel, Vygotsky, Montessori and Bruner. In the 1960s Bruce renamed it ‘free-flow play’, to include the work on ‘flow’ by the psychologist Csikszentmihalyi.
In ‘flow’ experiences:
Children are totally in control and self-regulated.
They are completely immersed and engaged in intense activity
Children’s bodies and minds are stretched in a voluntary and possibly unconscious effort to achieve something.
They are free from adult direction.
They are confirming what they know and absorbing it more deeply
They gain self-satisfaction, confidence and an inner feeling of happiness.
Their concentration is so deep and they are so engaged that they are not aware of themselves.
Their involvement in the activity is unconscious, like breathing – they don’t have to think about it.
‘Flow’ can often occur during activities or games and is associated with achievement and intrinsic self-satisfaction, giving confidence and a feeling of happiness. When it occurs and the length of time it lasts cannot be predicted – all teachers can do is ‘set the scene’ by programming time for free-choice activities. Flow experiences commonly occur in Montessori-type settings, when children are immersed in using game-like materials. Adults may not always notice (or may never have noticed) a child deep in a flow experience.
Consider the following description of how children might modify an activity once they are immersed in a flow experience:
The teacher gives the children a complete set of pre-prepared word cards (such as foot and ball) which make up compound words (such as football). The children are asked to take turns putting word cards together to make compounds. The set might include:
foot ball snow man cup cake cow boy butter fly sun flower toe nail bed room black bird
After a while, the children decide to change the activity to a type of memory game, putting all the cards face down. They turn the cards over one at a time. Children have to keep all the cards in their hand if they can’t make a compound word, or put one down if they can. The winner is the child with the most compound words.
The value of revisiting an activity or game for young children, free from adult direction, is often undervalued in classrooms. Free-flow experiences can include book browsing, which gives children an opportunity to revisit and reread a book independently, organising and controlling their relationship with the story. Through this self-regulated, fluid and adult-free experience, children are able to confirm what they know and absorb it more deeply.
Too much adult-led structure can stifle originality and the self-motivation needed to think and create. A class with only teacher-led activities which do not include the Playful Approach can stunt children’s innate passion. As well as this, frequent chances to repeat activities are needed so that children have the opportunity to repeat patterns – which is crucial for learning.
Free-flow play is an integrating mechanism which brings together everything we learn, know, feel and understand.
(Bruce)
1.5.1 Planning free-choice activities
Time is limited in many English class programmes, but most teachers manage to fit in a free-choice period at least once a month (or if lessons are daily, once every two weeks). In some schools free choice takes up a major part of the lesson time, often taking place after the warm up, or after the summing up at the end of the lesson. In larger classes, children can be divided into two groups, one working with the teacher and the other enjoying free choice. The group changeover can take place within a single lesson, or in the next lesson.
Where teachers cannot fit a free-choice session into their programme, they can make opportunities for children to take activities home to help them revisit a game, book or other activity and experience a sense of flow.
Happiness depends, as nature shows, less on exterior things than most suppose.
(Anon)
Discussion about which free-choice activities will be available in the allocated lesson is an important part of the flow experience. In free-choice situations, children have the freedom to make their own choice from the activities on offer, including book browsing and games that they want to revisit. Teachers need to listen to children’s requests as well as making their own suggestions and noticing children’s reactions to them. This reflective preparation plays an important role for children.
Young children are used to self-regulating their play on screen. They are completely absorbed, returning again and again to the same video game without adult intervention or even sometimes understanding the accompanying language. They manipulate the game until they have mastered it and then happily move on to the next level or game without taking a break. This is another type of flow experience, which can set the level of children’s expectations for off-screen activities.
‘Flow’ has been associated with increased performance in work, sport and in school.
(Stewart)
In free-choice activities children can:
reflect and make choices (critical thinking)
self-initiate
self-motivate
self-manage, working at their own pace
concentrate, persist and remain focused
consolidate their learning, taking it to a deeper level (metacognition skills)
problem solve, discover and rearrange (creativity)
collaborate with a partner or group members (social and emotional growth)
work without interference, except for guidance and encouragement from the teacher when required
work without external pressure (no fixed process) or set aims or goals (no end products)
work without rules, except for usual classroom or game rules (no right or wrong, no need to conform to adult-imposed standards)
harness emotions and find out how to manage them
imagine and insert humour
work on building self-learning strategies
explore new paths
experiment and take risks
repeat activities as often as they like.
1.5.2 Managing free-choice activities
Arranging free-choice activity sessions within an English course helps to further holistic learning, since activities can take place in L1 but are accompanied by a ‘hidden’ English syllabus. It also helps to further develop a positive mindset to learning English, as it helps children feel in control of their learning.
During free choice some children revert to using ‘private talk’, thinking aloud and giving a running commentary to themselves (but for all to hear) about their activity. Vygotsky believed this unconscious, private talk helps to develop thought and self-regulation. It can be in L1 or English or a combination of both, entailing ‘code-switching’ to fit words from one language into the other where necessary. Private speech can reveal a lot about a child’s inner thinking and level of understanding, and with maturity this external talk becomes internalised.
To organise a free-choice classroom session, the teacher has to present a selection of activities or games which the children are already familiar with, and then manage the children’s individual choices from the selection on offer. The teacher can present two or three possible activities, depending on what he or she feels the class can manage. The children’s choices should ideally be made in the previous session, with children signing up for their chosen activity. As places are limited for each activity, some children’s first choice of activity may be full and they may have to make a second choice. The teacher may need to teach them to wait until the next free-choice session for their first-choice activity. For example, the teacher could say Only four names, please. Write your name here. This list is full now. What is your second choice? You can have your first choice next time.
This choosing process involves critical thinking and in the first instances teachers need to help children by modelling how to think through the decision-making process and how to make decisions. This discussion around selection helps to develop children’s social and emotional intelligence, as well as showing children how to appreciate the feelings and choices of others. Initially, the teacher has to lead in the choosing of activities, gradually building up a mode of child participation. With maturity and experience, children begin to organise their choices amongst themselves while respecting the feelings of others.
Within a free-choice session, the role of the teacher changes from instructor to consultant, eventually giving guidance only where necessary. Children should be in control and any interference, except to remotivate, could intrude in the child’s world of reflection as they relive their chosen experience at a deeper level. In flow moments the child is functioning at the highest levels: imaginatively, creatively, innovatively.
Where children have chosen to work in pairs or a small group, the teacher’s role is to encourage collaboration as well as awareness of feelings and relationships, while children gradually become more aware of what they and their peers know (metacognition). Different skills and competences are introduced as each child revisits known activities, exploring, discovering, repeating and practising skills.
Children may discuss amongst themselves in English or in L1. The teacher is there to recast back in English where they have used L1, or to inject a phrase or some vocabulary in English which can blend in with the activity.
Teachers have to bear in mind that in free play the process is more important than the product. Teachers should not always be looking for some representation of the child’s work (or visible outcome) as this could inhibit the child’s present freedom and their future attitude to free-choice sessions. During free choice, children have a real reason to use English. Teachers can discreetly observe and assess where children need additional practice with handwriting and/or developing their usage of descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs).
In every job that must be done, there is an element of fun. You find the fun, and … SNAP! … the job’s a game!
(Mary Poppins, from the Disney film)
