Читать книгу 1000 Scupltures of Genius - Patrick Bade - Страница 6

1. Anonymous. Iris, west pediment, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, h: 125 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

As the ancient Greek city-states grew and evolved, the literary arts developed somewhat in advance of painting and sculpture. At about the time Homer was creating his epics, Greece saw the flourishing of the stylistic era identified as the Geometric period, lasting from about 950 to 750 B.C.E., a style dominated by rigid forms and in which the fluidity of the human figure was only just beginning to show itself. As the Greeks were increasingly exposed to foreign customs and material culture through trade, they were able to adapt and alter other artistic styles. The art of the Near East and of the Egyptians helped to shape Greek art of the Archaic period (c. 750 B.C.E. to 480 B.C.E.). During this time the Greeks began to infuse their figures with a greater sense of life, as with the famous “archaic smile” and with a new subtlety of articulation of the human body.

The remarkable evolution of Greek sculpture during the fifth century B.C.E. is unparalleled in artistic history. Innovations achieved during that time shaped stylistic development for thousands of years, and belong not to a people in one moment but to all of humankind. The development of weight-shift in a single standing figure and the concomitant torsion and subtlety of bodily stance were major aspects of this new style, but equally significant were the perfection of naturalistic forms, the noble calm, the dynamic equilibrium of movement, the harmony of parts, and the regulated proportions. All of this came to characterise the art of what we know as Classicism. The sculptors Polykleitos, Phidias (the sculptural master of the Parthenon project), and Myron worked in slightly divergent but compatible modes to achieve an art of moderation and perfection.

The fourth century B.C.E. saw an expansion of the artistic goals of the previous generations of Greek sculptors. Lysippos and Praxiteles softened the human form, and a nonchalant grace informs their figures. Artists in this period humanised the gods and added an element of elegance to their movement and expression. Sculptors of the fourth century B.C.E. increased the spatial complexity of the viewing experience: arms sometimes protrude into our space, groups are more dynamic in arrangement, and we benefit from walking around these sculptures and taking in the varied viewpoints.

The changes of the fourth century B.C.E. can hardly prepare us for the explosion of styles that occurred in the Hellenistic period, a time of exaggerations: extreme realism in rendering details and in capturing moments of daily life; great elegance of the female form, as we see in the memorable Venus de Milo and Nike of Samothrace; and extreme muscularity of male figures in action. The beauty and refinement of the Belvedere Apollo, now in the Vatican collection, stand as a refined continuation of the earlier Greek ideals. On the other hand, the high relief figures from the altar of Pergamon, showing the battle of the gods and giants, are powerful in physique and facial expression, with deep-set eyes, thick locks of waving hair, and theatrical gestures. Later, Michelangelo and Bernini would draw inspiration from the Hellenistic works known to them from Greek originals and Roman copies.

The Romans always remained to some extent under the sway of the Greeks, but developed their own modes of sculptural expression. The most striking of their early modes, not uninfluenced by Hellenistic models, was during the Republican period (until the second half of the first century B.C.E.). In an unforgettable development of the portrait type, Roman sculptors rendered searing details of facial particulars and created works conveying a strong sense of moral character, representing such virtues as wisdom, determination, and courage.

Around the time of Augustus a new kind of idealisation entered into Roman art, exemplified by the harmonious and flowing compositional arrangement of the reliefs on the Ara Pacis Augustae. A marble, standing figure of Augustus, the Augustus Prima Porta, is a Romanised version of Greek tradition, with the contrapposto (weight-shift) stance and the idealised, youthful face of the ruler. Less Greek in conception are the details of his armour and the heavy drapery style. Through the rest of the duration of the Roman Empire, there was a continuous artistic struggle, without resolution, between idealism and realism. The background to this battle was formed by the flood of Greek originals and Roman copies of them that filled the gardens, courtyards, and fora of the Romans, and these works ranged in style from the archaic to the Hellenistic.

Aside from any dependence on the Greeks, the Romans developed their own traditions, and were especially inventive in arriving at new stylistic expressions in their public monuments. The vigorous narrative and variety of the reliefs on the Arch of Titus still impress, and it is not surprising that they inspired Renaissance artists. No less remarkable are the intricate reliefs on the Column of Trajan and Column of Antoninus Pius. With scroll-like compositions, hundreds of figures adorn these columns in reliefs, showing military and – even more prominently – technological feats of the Roman armies. The figures seem large compared to their architectural surroundings, and the beginning of the “medieval” relationship of the figure to its spatial circumstances begins here.

The decline and fall of the Roman Empire formed a dramatic backdrop to the change of artistic style, including sculpture itself. By the late Empire of the third and fourth centuries A.D., at the time of the short-lived barracks emperors and during the experience of a host of troubles, portraiture achieved an extreme expression, sometimes capturing fear or cunning, and corresponding to the tenor of the times. The subjective question of the decline in style arises in a consideration of the Arch of Constantine (see no. 166): the side-by-side placement of earlier reliefs alongside those of the fourth century is telling in the squat proportions and repetitions of type and stance of the latter. Thus, even before the advent of Christianity, a decline in style and taste was present. This is no more evident than in the art of portraiture; the noble facial expression and the bodily idealism and harmony of the classical style have disappeared, and one sees instead nude figures with smaller heads and flat, broad chests.

The Christians, whose rise altered the character of Roman life, inherited the sculptural styles of the late Romans. Even some iconographic types were re-utilised; for example, Apollo-like features were given to Christ. Characteristic sculptural materials included an expansion of working in ivory, which remained a widespread medium in the Middle Ages. The Early Christian iconographic innovations were substantial, and a whole new range of subjects appeared in art. In the Eastern half of the fallen Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire would survive and persevere. Its sculptors retained features adapted from the late Roman style, and eventually the Byzantines would help to re-introduce some of the ancient Mediterranean artistic ideas into late medieval and proto-Renaissance Italy.

2. Anonymous. Portrait of Julius Caesar, c. 30–20 B.C.E. Marble, 56 × 19 × 26 cm. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

Julius Caesar began his political leadership as the head of the traditionally Republican government of Rome, but ended it as a murdered dictator. Caesar had taken control over the vast empire of Rome, eschewing the practice of sharing power with the Senate. He was both revered for his strong leadership and resented for his tyranny. It was that resentment that led to his assassination on the Ides of March, 44 B.C.E. This portrait expresses not only Caesar’s likeness, but also his character. We sense his strength, intelligence and nobility. The bust follows the Republican tradition of veristic portraiture.

3. Anonymous. The “Auxerre Kore”, c. 640–630 B.C.E. Limestone, h: 75 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

In the seventh century B.C.E., Greek sculptors first began to create large-scale sculpture in stone. The tradition grew out of the production of small bronze and terracotta figurines, produced in Greece as early as the tenth century B.C.E. With this piece, the artist changed the conception of sculpture, from small, portable figurines to large, free-standing sculpture, of the type so well-known in later Greek art. In this early example, which stands less than a metre high, the influence of Egypt can be seen in the patterned, wig-like hairstyle and the stiff, frontal stance. She is modestly dressed in a long, patterned gown and shawl, simply adorned with a broad belt. Her hand is raised to her chest in a reverent gesture. Most likely created for placement in a sanctuary, this “Kore,” or female figure, would have represented either a devout young woman, or a goddess to whom a prayer was offered.

4. Anonymous. Kleobis and Biton, Apollo Sanctuary, Delphi (Greece), c. 610–580 B.C.E. Marble, h: 218 cm. Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Delphi (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Kleobis and Biton are life-size statues that were found in the sanctuary at Delphi. An inscription identifies the artist as coming from Argos, on the Peloponnesus. The sculptures’ origin in Argos links them to the mythical twins Kleobis and Biton. These young men from Argos were said to pull a cart a full five miles in order to bring their mother to a festival dedicated to the goddess Hera. In return, Hera granted the men what was seen as a great gift: a gentle death while sleeping. The brothers fell asleep after the festival and never woke up. Their great strength, devotion to their mother, and their early deaths were memorialised in dedicatory statues offered at the great sanctuary at Delphi, according to the historian Herodotus. These statues, which may be those described by Herodotus, are close in date to the Dipylon Head and share the same Egyptian style and decorative, incised details.

5. Anonymous. Moschophoros, called the “Calf Bearer”, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 570 B.C.E. Marble, h: 164 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

6. Anonymous. The Sounion Kouros, Temple of Poseidon, Cape Sounion (Greece), c. 600 B.C.E. Marble, h: 305 cm. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

7. Anonymous. The Naxian Sphinx, Earth Sanctuary, Delphi (Greece), c. 560 B.C.E. Marble, h: 232 cm. Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Delphi (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

This graceful creature is a composite of a lion, an eagle, and a woman. The grace and beauty of the sphinx emphasises its strength: this fierce creature was intended to protect all that it could oversee from its position atop a high column. The column and sphinx were erected as a votive offering by the people of Naxos at the sanctuary of Delphi. Such votive offerings, which could also include figurines and statues, reflect the “quid pro quo” nature of the Greeks’ relationship with their gods. They would ask a god for something, promising a votive gift if they got what they asked for. The sanctuary at Delphi was a popular location for this sort of prayer; people from all over Greece would go there to consult the oracle of the Temple of Apollo before they undertook any important act. If they received favour from Apollo, they would leave a votive offering.

8. Anonymous. Dipylon Head, Dipylon, Athens (Greece), c. 600 B.C.E. Marble, h: 44 cm. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

This fragment is a rare early example of the “kouros”, or standing male statue. Its name comes from the Dipylon Cemetery in Athens where it was found. There, in the sixth century B.C.E., statues were sometimes used as grave markers. While female statues were modestly dressed, the male versions were nude, perhaps indicating a god or a hero. Like the Auxerre Kore, these statues developed both from a local tradition of small figurines, and from the Egyptian tradition of large stone sculpture. The early date of this piece is revealed through the style, which is more decorative than realistic. The eyes and eyebrows are deeply-incised, the contours of the face are flat, and shape of the ear is indicated with concentric, curved lines. The hair is patterned in an Egyptian manner and held back with a band. Over the course of the sixth century, Greek sculpture would lose this patterned, decorative quality and become increasingly realistic and lifelike.

9. Anonymous. Kore dedicated to Hera by Cheramyes of Samos, c. 570–560 B.C.E. Marble, h: 192 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

This kore is best understood through comparison to the earlier Auxerre Kore. It continues the tradition sculpting the standing female in stone, but shows the development in the art form. This kore, like the earlier example, is modestly draped in a long gown and a shawl, but the form of her body is more visible underneath, especially the curves of her shoulders, breasts, and belly. The sculptor has drawn attention to these forms by showing how the clothing gathers, pleats and falls as it drapes over the woman’s body. Instead of the heavy, patterned woollen peplos worn by the Auxerre Kore, this kore wears a chiton, a tightly pleated, lightweight garment made of linen. The pleats are shown in detail, creating a vertical pattern that contrasts with the diagonal drapery of the shawl. This attention to the patterns of drapery would continue to characterise female sculpture in Greece over the coming centuries.

10. Anonymous. Ornithe, Geneleos Group, Heraion of Samos, Samos (Greece), c. 560–550 B.C.E. Marble, h: 168 cm.Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

11. Anonymous. Kore, Keratea, c. 570–560 B.C.E. Marble, h: 193 cm.Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

12. Anonymous. Kore 679, called the “Peplos Kore”, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, traces of painting, h: 118 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Known as the Peplos Kore, this piece was another victim of the Persian invasion, found buried in the ruins of the Acropolis in Athens. While her heavy garment hangs straight over her body, the sculptor has taken care to show the curves of her shoulders, breasts, and hips. Underneath the straight skirt, she wears the lightweight, crinkly linen chiton. Her full face has more life and realism in it than earlier korai. The vitality of the piece is heightened, for the modern viewer, by the remains of paint on the statue, and also through the very slight movement shown through the upraised arm and the left leg, which steps very slightly forward.

13. Anonymous. Kore 671, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 520 B.C.E. Marble, h: 177 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

14. Anonymous. Kouros, called the “Apollo from Tenea”, c. 560–550 B.C.E. Marble, h: 153 cm. Glyptothek, Munich. Greek Antiquity.

15. Anonymous. Head of a Cavalier called the “Cavalier Rampin”, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 550 B.C.E. Marble, traces of painting, h: 27 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

When the Persians attacked Athens in 480 B.C.E., they destroyed the Acropolis, setting fire to the great temples it held. The scorched and broken relics of statuary were buried like victims of war by the Athenians. Archaeologists have since recovered the buried statues, and so we have a rich array of sculptural examples from Greece’s “Archaic” period. The examples include a number of korai, or standing females, but also this rare example of a figure on horseback. Like the earlier small bronze figurines of men on horseback, this life-size stone sculpture evokes a heroic figure. The rich patterns of the hair and beard are characteristic of Near Eastern art, a style presumably brought to Athens via the Greek colonies in Asia Minor. The name of the statue comes from the French diplomat who purchased the head, separated from the rest of the piece, in the nineteenth century. The head remains in Paris, in the Louvre, while the other fragments are housed on the Acropolis in Athens.

16. Anonymous. Kouros, Asclepieion, Paros, c. 540 B.C.E. Marble, h: 103 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

17. Anonymous. Head of a Blond Youth, c. 485 B.C.E. Marble, h: 25 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

18. Anonymous. Kouros, Agrigento, c. 500–480 B.C.E. Marble, h: 104 cm. Archaeological Museum, Agrigente (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

19. Anonymous. The Kritios Boy, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 480–470 B.C.E. Marble, h: 116 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

20. Anonymous. Heracles, Temple of Portonaccio, Veii (Italy), 510–490 B.C.E. Terracotta. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giula, Rome (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

Unlike Greek temples, Etruscan, or Tuscan, temples were traditionally decorated with large terracotta sculptures balanced on the roof, along the ridgepole. One of the most important temples in Etruria was in the city of Veii. The temple at Veii, called the Portonaccio temple, featured a group of figures sculpted out of baked clay, or terracotta, along the ridge of the temple’s roof. The two principle figures of the group are Apollo and Heracles. Heracles, shown here, is controlling a hind, a deer sacred to the goddess Artemis. The task of capturing the hind was one of the twelve labours of Heracles, a penance he was ordered to perform by the Oracle of Delphi as punishment for killing his family. The pose of Heracles as he rests his foot on the hind (the head of the animal is not preserved) is typical of the dynamism of Etruscan statuary. While Archaic Greek statues were still and static, this Archaic Etruscan example is frozen in motion, engaged in restraining the animal, showing the strength and power of Heracles.

21. Anonymous. Apollo, Temple of Portonaccio, Veii (Italy), c. 510 B.C.E. Terracotta, h: 180 cm. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giula, Rome (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

22. Anonymous. Warrior from Cerveteri, c. 530–510 B.C.E. Terracotta. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (Denmark). Etruscan Antiquity.

23. Anonymous. Athena introducing Heracles on Mount Olympus,c. 530–520 B.C.E. Terracotta. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giula, Rome (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

24. Anonymous. Young Girl running, pediment, Temple of Eleusis, Eleusis (Greece), c. 490–480 B.C.E. Marble, h: 65 cm. Archaeological Museum, Eleusis (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

25. Anonymous. Kore 686, called “The Sulky One”, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 480 B.C.E., Marble, h: 58 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Kore 686, from the Athenian Acropolis, shows elements both from the Archaic style and from the Severe, or Early Classical, style that followed. Her long locks of hair and complex layers of clothing are familiar elements of Archaic sculpture. However, the serious, or “severe,” expression on her face, as well as the strict, vertical folds of her chiton are more typical of the new, more serious aesthetic of the Severe style. Her ornamentation has been reduced; she wears no necklace or bracelets, and her gown has none of the decorative patterning seen on earlier pieces. The head and torso fragment probably belong with a base that is inscribed “Euthydikos, the son of Thaliarchos, dedicated (it).” The statue can thus be understood as a votive offering by Euthydikos, representing a goddess, or perhaps Thaliarchos, his mother.

26. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of a Couple from Cerveteri, c. 520–510 B.C.E. Painted terracotta, 111 × 194 × 69 cm.Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Etruscan Antiquity.

Though their civilisation flourished alongside that of the Greeks, our limited understanding of Etruscan language and culture has left a veil of mystery over the people who lived in Italy before the Roman Republic. Their art was strongly influenced by that of the Greeks, as evidenced by this terracotta sarcophagus with its echoes of the style of the Greek Archaic period. In Etruscan sculpture, however, we find more lively subjects, like this couple, animated in their easy affection for each other. Like so much of Etruscan art, this is a funerary piece, designed for placement in one of the elaborate tombs the Etruscans carved out of the soft volcanic bedrock of central Italy. It reveals the Etruscan view of the afterlife: an eternal party, where men and women would lounge at a banquet, enjoying good food, drink, and the company of their loved ones.

27. Anonymous. Antefixe, 500 B.C.E. Terracotta. Etruscan Antiquity.

The soft, porous volcanic stone found in Etruria was not suitable for building or carving. Etruscan temples were therefore made mainly out of wood. The wooden structure of the temple was protected by terracotta tiles and ornaments. While wood does not survive the ravages of time, terracotta does, and these small terracotta decorations are often all that remains of the great Etruscan temples of the past. The terracotta pieces on the temples were both functional and decorative. The piece shown is an antefix, an ornament placed at the end of the roofline, hiding the edge of the roof tiles and protecting the wooden framework underneath. Antefixes were often decorated. This one shows the head of a maenad, a woman who worshipped the wine god, Dionysus. Her slight smile and long plaits of hair show the influence of Greek Archaic sculpture.

28. Anonymous. Antefixe with the Head of a Gorgon, 500 B.C.E. Terracotta. Etruscan Antiquity.

29. Anonymous. Kore, Delos (Greece), c. 525–500 B.C.E. Marble, h: 134 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

30. Anonymous. Kore 594, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 500 B.C.E. Marble, h: 122 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Kore 594 is another of the large group of statues of maidens from the Athenian Acropolis, buried after the destruction of the Acropolis by the Persian army. While the head is not preserved, the piece retains an air of regal elegance, due mainly to the complex folds of richly decorated clothing. Her right arm would have extended outwards, perhaps holding an offering to Athena. While the male statues of this period were completely nude, the female versions were not only clothed, but accessorised with an elaborate array of robes and fancy jewellery. The many patterns, drapes, and folds the sculptor has carved on her garments lend a rich, decorative quality to the piece, heightened by the effect of bright paint, much of which is preserved on her hair and gown.

31. Anonymous. Kore 675, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 520–510 B.C.E. Marble, h: 54.5 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

32. Anonymous. Kore 685, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 500–490 B.C.E. Marble, h: 122 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

33. Anonymous. Kore 678, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, h: 96.4 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

34. Anonymous. Graces with Offerings, Passage of the Theores, Thasos (Greece), c. 480 B.C.E. Marble, 92 × 92 × 33 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

35. Anonymous. Hermes and a Grace, Passage of the Theores, Thasos (Greece), c. 480 B.C.E. Marble, 92 × 92 × 33 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

36. Anonymous. Apollo and the Nymphs, Passage of the Theores, Thasos (Greece), c. 480 B.C.E. Marble, 92 × 209 × 44 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

37. Anonymous. Leda and the Swan, copy after a Greek original created during the first half of the 5th century B.C.E. by Timotheus. Marble, h: 132 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

38. Anonymous. Youth Clad in Tight Long-Fitting Tunic, called the “Charioteer of Motya”, c. 470 B.C.E. Marble, h: 181 cm. Museo Joseph Whitaker, Motya (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

39. Anonymous. The Charioteer of Delphi, c. 475 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 180 cm. Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Delphi (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Delphi was a pan-Hellenic sanctuary, a place where people from all over the Greek world would gather to worship, consult the oracle, and participate in the Pythian games, held every four years. The games were comprised of music and sporting events, including chariot racing. This sculpture was part of a group dedicated to commemorate a victory in a chariot race, we are told by the inscription preserved on the piece. In addition to the chariot driver, there were horses, a chariot, and a groom. The lavish expenditure on the life-size monument would have represented not only the victory in the race, but also the great wealth of the donor. The bronze figure was enlivened with inlay of silver, copper, and stone in the teeth, headband, and eyes. The deep, straight folds of the drapery are in keeping with the Early Classical, or Severe, style of sculpture.

40. Anonymous. Birth of Aphrodite, detail of the “Ludovisi Throne”, c. 470–460 B.C.E. Marble, h: 90, l: 142 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

41. Anonymous. Youth making an Offering, detail of the “Ludovisi Throne”, c. 470–460 B.C.E. Marble, h: 84 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

42. Anonymous. Nude playing the Double Flute, detail of the “Ludovisi Throne”, c. 470–460 B.C.E. Marble, h: 84 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

43. Anonymous. Kroisos, Anavysos, c. 525 B.C.E. Marble, h: 193 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

44. Anonymous. The Tyrannicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton, roman copy after a Greek original created around 477 B.C.E. by Critios. Marble, h: 195 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

Harmodius and Aristogeiton Metal was a valuable commodity in the ancient world, so sculptures made of bronze or other metals were often eventually melted down by a conquering nation or a successive ruler who did not care for the art of his predecessor. For that reason, few large-scale bronze sculptures survive from antiquity. Romans, however, had a taste for Greek art, and copied many of their bronze sculptures in stone, the material preferred by Romans. Often, the bronze original has since been lost, and the Roman copies are all that survive. Such is the case with this group, Roman copies in marble of two Greek sculptures in bronze. The subjects are Harmodius and Aristogeiton, lovers who together conspired to murder the political tyrant, Hippias. They lost their nerve and killed his brother instead, but were revered as heroes by Athenians who believed them to have murdered the tyrant. Statues of the two were erected in their honour in the Athenian Agora.

45. Anonymous. Dying Warrior, corner figure, east pediment, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (Greece), c. 500–480 B.C.E. Marble, l: 185 cm. Glyptothek, Munich (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

Greek temples often featured large sculpture decorating the pediment, the triangular space under the eave of the roof. The first examples of pedimental sculpture show that the early artists were not adept at filling the awkward triangular space with a cohesive composition; the figures in the corners were shrunk to a diminutive scale in comparison to the central figures. However, in this pediment group from the end of the Archaic period, the sculptors showed new skill in conceiving the composition. The central figures, not shown, engage in lively battle, lunging and parrying with swords and shields. One archer crouches to take aim, his low position allowing him to fit into the smaller space toward the corner of the pediment. The Dying Warrior next to him fills that corner, the angle of his falling body perfectly fitting into the smallest part of the pediment. A single, cohesive narrative is thereby created across the triangular space, telling the story of a battle fought by local heroes.

46. Anonymous. The Battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, west pediment, Temple of Zeus, Olympia (Greece), c. 470–456 B.C.E. Marble, height of Apollo: 330 cm. Archaeological Museum, Olympia (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

47. Anonymous. Heracles fighting the Cretan Bull, west metope, Temple of Zeus, Olympia (Greece), c. 470–456 B.C.E. Marble, h: 160 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

48. Anonymous. Heracles receiving the Golden Apples of the Hesperides from the Hand of Atlas, while Minerva rests a Cushion on his Head, east metope, Temple of Zeus, Olympia (Greece), c. 470–456 B.C.E. Marble, h: 160 cm. Archaeological Museum, Olympia (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

This metope, or square component of the frieze of the temple, is from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the largest and most important structure of the first half of the fifth century. Together, the metopes of the Temple of Zeus told the story of the twelve labours of Heracles. Each metope showed one of his labours, or tasks. This metope shows the eleventh labour, the apples of the Hesperides. Heracles was told he had to steal apples belonging to Zeus. He met up with Atlas, who had to hold up the world for all of time. Atlas said he would get the apples for Heracles if Heracles would hold the earth for him. In the scene shown, Atlas has returned with the apples, and Heracles must figure out how to get Atlas to take back the weight of the world. Athena stands behind Heracles, gently helping him hold his burden.

49. Anonymous. Pensive Athena, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 470–460 B.C.E. Marble, h: 54 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, worshipped by Athenians on the Acropolis, and honoured in special events such as the Panathenaic festival. For her part, Athena aided the Athenians in battle and brought them prosperity through the cultivation of the olive tree. In this relief, we are meant to see the depth of her affection for the Athenians. She reads a list of Athenian soldiers killed in war, and mourns them sorrowfully, her head bowed, her body resting heavily against her spear. The melancholy mood of the piece is characteristic of Severe style sculpture. That style is also seen in the heavy, straight folds of Athena’s dress, or peplos, and the still, heaviness of her pose. In comparison to earlier Archaic sculpture, however, in this piece we see a fleshed, realistic person in a natural pose, expressing real emotion. These qualities reveal the increasing skill of the artists from the sixth to the fifth century B.C.E.

50. Anonymous. Hades and Persephone, pinax relief (fragment), c. 470–450 B.C.E. Terracotta, h: 255 cm. Museo Nazionale, Reggio Calabria (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

This terracotta plaque shows Hades, the god of the underworld, with his bride, Persephone. Hades abducted Persephone and brought her to the underworld; in her grief, Persephone’s mother, Demeter, made the world infertile. Zeus had to intervene, demanding that Hades let Persephone spend half the year with her mother. The cycle of Persephone’s annual passage from her mother to the underworld is reflected in the seasons, with the cold, frozen winter the result of her time in the underworld, and Demeter’s grief. On this plaque, Hades and Persephone are shown ruling the underworld. Their stiff, regal poses indicate their status as rulers, but also reflect the style of the early fifth century B.C.E., the Severe style. The stillness of the figures, the straight folds of drapery, and the serious facial expressions are all characteristic of the Severe style.

51. Anonymous. Apollo, called the “Apollo Parnopios”, copy after a Greek original created around 450 B.C.E. by Phidias. Marble, h: 197 cm. Staatliche Museen, Kassel (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

Apollo was the god of music, poetry, medicine, archery, and prophecy, and was always shown as young and beautiful. Here, he has the idealised body of a young male athlete. The naturalism of his anatomy, with its sculpted muscles and graceful movement, is expressed through the relaxed, contrapposto stance. His expression is thoughtful but emotionless. This classic fifth-century B.C.E. statue type is transformed into Apollo by the addition of the elaborately curled long hair, and his attributes, the bow and laurel wreath, which he would have held in each hand.

52. Anonymous. Bust of Perikles, copy after a Greek original created around 425 B.C.E. Marble, h: 48 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

53. Anonymous. Discobolus, copy after a Greek original created around 450 B.C.E. by Myron. Marble, h: 148 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

In Myron’s Discobolus, we see the human form freed from the standing, frontal pose of earlier statues. Here, the artist is clearly interested not only in the body of the athlete, but in the movement of the discus thrower. His muscles tense and strain in preparation for his throw, his face focused on his activity. While the pose, with the arms forming a wide arc, is revolutionary, the piece is still meant to be viewed from the front. It would not be until the following century that artists began to conceive of sculpture that could be viewed from all sides.

54. Anonymous Farnese Heracles, copy after a Greek original created during the 5th century B.C.E. Marble, h: 313 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Here, Heracles rests after obtaining the apples of the Hesperides, which he holds in his right hand. The sculpture is a Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze original, usually attributed to Lysippos, a sculptor of the fourth century B.C.E. The weight of the figure is borne almost completely by Heracles’ right leg and by the club, covered with his signature lion skin, on which he leans. The exaggerated contrapposto, or shift in weight, that results is typical of fourth-century B.C.E. sculpture. However, the heavy, muscled form is not. The uncharacteristic weightiness of the figure may be due to the subject, the notoriously strong Heracles. Or, it may be an exaggeration created by the Roman copyist, in response to the aesthetic ideals of the Roman audience. The weighty realism of this piece inspired artists of the Italian Renaissance and later periods after it was discovered in the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome in the sixteenth century.

55. Anonymous. Marsyas, copy after a Greek original created around 450 B.C.E. by Myron. Marble. Museo Gregoriano Profano, Vatican (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

Like Myron’s Discobolus, his Marsyas, pictured here, is shown in a dramatic stance that marks an important departure from the stiff, frontal poses of Archaic statues. The Roman copy in marble requires a strut for support, but the bronze original would have appeared even more dynamic, delicately balanced on the balls of his feet. The subject has been identified as Marsyas, a satyr, who at the moment shown, has spotted a reed instrument upon the ground, discarded by Athena. He is poised in motion, recoiling in surprise at his good luck, but momentarily fearful of taking the precious item. He will pick it up and become of a master of the instrument, but in the way of Greek tragedy, his gift will be his downfall. Hubris, or pride, leads him to challenge the god of music, Apollo, to a contest. He loses, of course, and is flayed alive as punishment.

56. Anonymous. Riace Bronze A, Roman copy after a Greek original created around 450 B.C.E. by Phidias. Bronze, h: 198 cm. Museo Nazionale, Reggio Calabria (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

57. Anonymous. Riace Bronze B, Roman copy after a Greek original created around 450 B.C.E. by Phidias.Bronze, h: 197 cm. Museo Nazionale, Reggio Calabria (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

A sunken treasure, this bronze statue was pulled from the sea, having been lost in a shipwreck in antiquity. Ironically, its loss in the sea resulted in it being one of the few bronze statues to survive from antiquity, since it was never melted down for its valuable metal. The warrior is one of a pair that has been attributed to the fifth century B.C.E., or High Classical Period. In this piece we can see the ideals of High Classical period sculpture fully realised. At the same time realistic and idealistic, the sculpture shows a lifelike, but perfect, body, each muscle articulated, the figure frozen in a relaxed, life-like pose. The solid, athletic body reflects the ideal of a young athlete, although this figure represents an older warrior, who once would have held a spear and a shield. The nudity of the figure also alludes to the athlete, who in Greece would have practised or competed in the nude, and also to the mythical hero, a reminder that the man represented here was no ordinary warrior, but a semi-divine hero, an appropriate offering for one of the great sanctuaries of the Greek world.

58. Anonymous. Zeus or Poseidon, Cape Artemision, c. 460 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 209 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

59. Anonymous. Youth of Antikythera, middle of the 4th century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 194 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

60. Anonymous. Battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs, south metope No.29, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 446–438 B.C.E. Marble, h: 134 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

61. Anonymous. Battle of the Lapith and the Centaurs, south metope No.30, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 446–438 B.C.E. Marble, h: 134 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

62. Anonymous. A Lapith tackles a Fleeing Centaur and prepares to Strike a Decisive Blow, south metope No.27, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 446–438 B.C.E. Marble, h: 135 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

The Parthenon, part of the Acropolis sanctuary to Athena in Athens, is seen as a paradigm of classical architecture and the pinnacle of classical architectural sculpture. Its sculptural program included two pediments, an interior Ionic frieze and exterior Doric frieze, with sculpted metopes on all four sides, each showing a mythical battle. This metope is from the south side, which illustrated the Centauramachy, or battle between the Centaurs and Lapiths. Here, a Lapith man wrestles a Centaur. Both figures are shown actively straining, pulling in opposite directions, creating a strong sense of dynamism in the piece. That dynamic force is emphasised by the folds of the Lapith’s robe that spills out behind him, also enlivening the background of the piece. Dramatic movement, and patterning such as that created by the folds of cloth, along with the addition of paint, would make the metope more visually arresting to the viewer far below on the ground.

63. Anonymous. Goddesses, east pediment, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, h: 130 cm. The British Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Most of this pediment was lost when the temple was converted into a Christian church and an apse was added to the east end. This group of goddesses survives, however, and illustrates why the Parthenon’s decoration is seen as the pinnacle of Greek architectural sculpture. The triangular shape of the pediment can be seen in this group, which would have occupied most of one of the corners. The problem of how to fill a triangular space has been solved with mastery here: the three goddesses lounge together, sitting, squatting, and reclining in a relaxed group, their poses naturally filling the angled space. A far cry from the straight, frontal figures of the Archaic period, these bodies bend, twist, reach and lean, their sheer drapery serving only to accentuate the curves of their bodies.

64. Anonymous. Head of the Pan-Athenaic Procession, slab No.7, east frieze, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), 445–438 B.C.E. Marble, h: 96 cm, l: 207 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

65. Anonymous. Horse of Selene, east pediment, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, l: 83.3 cm.The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

66. Anonymous. Mounted Riders, slab No.38, north frieze, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, h: 106 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

The Parthenon in Athens is a Doric-style building, but has the distinction of including an Ionic-style, continuous frieze around the cella, and the structure inside the exterior ring of columns. The Ionic frieze, wrapping unbroken around the cella, provided sculptors with the perfect opportunity to depict a long procession. The procession shown is the Panathenaic festival, the annual religious celebration of Athena, during which Athenians would climb to the Acropolis to present a new gown, or peplos, to the goddess’s cult statue. The long line of the frieze is kept visually interesting by varying the members of the procession: some are shown walking, some leading animals, and some on horseback. On this fragment of the frieze, a line of horsemen are shown overlapping, at varying levels of relief. Some of the horses rear, some buck their heads, further varying the scene. Originally, the frieze would have been painted, increasing its visibility to the viewer forty feet below.

67. Anonymous. Horse Men, slab No.42, north frieze, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, h: 106 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

68. Anonymous. Diomedes, c. 430 B.C.E. Marble, h: 102 cm. Glyptothek, Munich (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

69. Anonymous. Male Torso, the “Diadoumenos”, copy after a bronze original created around 430 B.C.E. by Polykleitos. Marble, h: 85 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

70. Anonymous. Diadoumenos, the Young Athlete, copy after the bronze original created around 430 B.C.E. by Polykleitos. Marble, h:186 cm. National Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

Polykleitos is one of the best-known sculptors of the fifth century B.C.E., known especially for his athletic dedications, such as this one. The figure binds his hair with a tie in preparation for sport. His clothes rest next to him on a low branch, since Greek athletes exercised in the nude. Polykleitos’ Doryphoros, or Canon, sought to illustrate the ideal male figure. In the piece shown, we see the same proportions the sculptor established with his Canon, and the same attention to anatomical realism. The Polykleitan ideal is a heavy, muscled, somewhat stocky body, especially in comparison to the more gracile figures of the next century.

71. Anonymous. Caryatid, Erechtheum, Acropolis, Athens (Greece), c. 420–406 B.C.E. Marble, h: 231 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

In the caryatid, the column takes its most ornate form, replaced entirely by the statue of a woman. It decorates the porch of the Erechteion, a temple to Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, built to replace one destroyed by the Persians. In its form and decoration, this temple deviates from tradition, including not only the unusual caryatids, but also an asymmetrical plan on varying ground levels, with two porches jutting out of the main building. This atypical plan was due to the multiple shrines incorporated into the temple, and also to its placement on an uneven rocky outcrop, home to the original olive tree given to the city by Athena. The six caryatids supported the south porch, one of the unusual additions to the regular temple plan. The caryatid figures have all the solidity of form we find in other fifth-century sculpture, and therefore seem up to the task of supporting a roof. The exaggerated shift in weight, and the clinginess of the drapery, are typical of sculpture of the end of the fifth century B.C.E.

72. Anonymous. Wounded Amazon, Roman copy after a Greek original created around 440–430 B.C.E. by Polykleitos. Marble, h: 202 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

The Amazons are known from Greek mythology as great warriors. Like the flipside of the Greek world, in Amazon society it was the women who hunted and fought wars; in some versions of the myth no men were allowed in their society, in other versions, men were present, but charged with domestic duties. In Greek art, Amazons are usually shown in battle against the Greeks. Since the women warriors represented a reversal of the norms of Greek society, it is thought that the images of Amazons may have been metaphors of the Persians, enemies of the Greeks, inhabitants of the east, and “others” in the same way the mythological Amazons were unknown, mysterious enemies of the Greeks.

73. Anonymous. Artemis, east frieze, Parthenon, Athens (Greece), c. 438–432 B.C.E. Marble, h: 100 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

74. Anonymous. Draped Woman Seated, tombstone (fragment), c. 400 B.C.E. Marble, h: 122 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (United States). Greek Antiquity.

75. Paionios of Mende, Greek. Nike, c. 420 B.C.E. Marble, h: 290 cm. Archaeological Museum, Olympia (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

76. Anonymous. Nike, balustrade, Temple of Athena Nike, Athens (Greece), c. 420–400 B.C.E. Marble, h: 101 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

The Nike, or winged victory, was a companion to Athena, often shown following the goddess, or held in her hand. This figure is from the Temple to Athena Nike, from a frieze along the balustrade, or low wall surrounding the temple. Along this long frieze, the Nike figure was shown repeatedly in a variety of poses, setting up trophies and offering sacrifices. This fragment captures Nike in an unguarded moment, adjusting her sandal. This casual action is indicative of how the Greeks saw their gods – humanlike, imperfect, and subject to foibles and folly. Here, her movement also provides the sculptor with the opportunity to emphasise the elaborate folds of drapery that gather over her arm and across her bent legs.

77. Anonymous. Capitoline She-Wolf (Romulus and Remus), 5th century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 75 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

Rome emerged into greatness from a history as a small city within an Italy largely controlled by Etruscans. This historical past was not glorious enough for the Romans, however, who preferred a mythological tale of the founding of the city. In that story, two brothers, Romulus and Remus, descendents of the heroes of the Trojan War & of the god Mars, were abandoned near the Tiber River. They were suckled by a she-wolf and therefore survived. Later, they founded the city of Rome, but they quarrelled; Romulus killed Remus, and went on to rule Rome. In this piece, two babies are shown suckling at the teats of a she-wolf. The babies were added during the Renaissance, so we cannot identify the piece with certainty as a depiction of Romulus and Remus. It does, however, date to the very early years of the Roman Republic, so it may be an image of that founding myth. Ironically, the piece is the work of an Etruscan artist, reflecting the very heritage that the Romans wished to deny.

78. Anonymous. Chimera of Arezzo, c. 380–360 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 80 cm. Museo Archeologico di Firenze, Florence (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

The Chimera was a mythical creature, a composite of a lion’s head and body, a snake for a tail, and a second head, of a goat, emerging from its back. A powerful monster, it was thought to bestow evil upon anyone who saw it. Its origin was Lycia in Asia Minor, but this depiction of the monster comes from Etruria in Italy, which had been greatly influenced by the cultures of the Near East via trade and exchange. It showcases the metalworking talent of the Etruscans. The artist has captured the animal in a fierce roar, writhing in pain as it attacks itself, the snake-tail biting the goat-head, blood pouring from the wound. The realism of the lion’s body, with its tensed muscles and ribcage jutting through the skin, is contrasted by the decorative quality of the lion’s mane and tufted back, the fur forming a textured pattern along its body.

79. Anonymous. Statue of Aphrodite (?), Nemi (Italy), c. 350 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 50.5 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Etruscan Antiquity.

80. Anonymous. Mars from Todi, end of the 5th century B.C.E. Bronze. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

The Etruscans were a native people of Italy, living in the area that today still bears their name: Tuscany. They enjoyed prosperity, in part because of access to rich metal resources. Their expertise in working with metal is attested by this bronze statue of a warrior in his armour, performing a libation, or liquid offering, before the battle. In his right hand he holds a shallow pouring vessel, and with his left hand he was originally leaning on his spear. A helmet would have completed the figure. In the naturalism of the rendition of the warrior, and his contrapposto stance, we see the influence of fifth-century Greece. A Greek statue would have been nude, however; the modestly-clad warrior is clearly a product of an Etruscan artist. The statue was found in Todi at the site of an ancient sanctuary dedicated to Mars. It was buried between slabs of travertine stone, lost in a collapse of some sort, which accounts for its rare state of preservation.

81. Anonymous. Battle between the Greeks and the Amazons, east frieze, Temple of Apollo Epikourios, Bassae (Greece), c. 420 B.C.E. Marble, h: 70 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

82. Anonymous. Amazon Frieze, Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Bodrum (Turkey), c. 360–350 B.C.E. Marble, h: 90 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

83. Anonymous. Nereid 909, Nereid Monument, Xanthos (Turkey), c. 400 B.C.E. Marble, h: 140 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

In Greek mythology, the Nereids were a set of fifty sisters, sea-nymphs who were helpful to sailors in the Mediterranean Sea during storms. The Nereid Monument was a temple-tomb erected in Xanthos, on the coast of Asia Minor. It was a small, Ionic-style building with a carved relief on a frieze wrapping around it. Above, between the columns of the colonnade, were statues of numerous Nereids clothed in sheer chitons. The tomb was built by the local Lycian elite, but the sculpture reflects the international culture of the Hellenistic Period. In the typically dramatic style of the Hellenistic, the chiton worn by this nymph is blown by the wind and the sea, and clings to her body. Each nymph was in a different pose, seemingly captured in movement, frozen perpetually in the wind blowing off the sea.

84. Anonymous. Thanatos, Alceste, Hermes and Persephone, drum of column, Artemision, Ephesus (Turkey), c. 350–300 B.C.E. Marble, h: 155 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

This is the only remaining sculpted column drum from the Temple of Artemis, or Artemision, at Ephesus. The temple was one of the wonders of the ancient world, renowned both for its majestic size and for its decorative program. It was built around 550 B.C.E., then rebuilt in the fourth century, the period from which this column drum dates. The temple exemplified the Ionic order of architecture, which was the temple style of the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, where the Artemision was located. Much larger than a typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon, it measured 115 metres in length. The central building, or cella, was surrounded by a double ring of columns, and had additional rows of columns at the front and back, creating the effect of a “forest of columns”. The columns were very large, and much more ornate than those of the Doric order. The lowest drum of each column, just above the column base, was sculpted in low relief. These works of art would have been at eye level, providing a rich array of decorative narratives to surround the visitor. The overall effect of the temple must have been one of overwhelming scale and lavish decoration. Sadly, though the temple stood for hundreds of years, it is now almost completely lost. This single remaining sculpted drum stands as a testament to the skill of the artisans commissioned to build and decorate the great temple.

85. Anonymous. Maenad, copy after a Greek original created around c. 370–330 B.C.E. by Skopas. Marble, h: 45 cm. Skultpturensammlung, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

Skopas was one of the great sculptors of the fourth century B.C.E. He was known for the deeply-carved, expressive eyes of his subjects, and the resulting sense of emotionality in his works. In this dancing Maenad, thought to be a copy of a work of Skopas, we see one of Skopas’ important innovations: the movement conveyed by the piece. Far more than a gesture or a weight-shift, the maenad’s movement is a violent, swirling dance, shown especially in the twist of her neck and the swirl of her gown. Maenads were worshippers of Dionysos, the god of wine. His followers were thought to engage in drunken, orgiastic rituals, dancing in an ecstatic frenzy.

86. Anonymous. Apollo Sauroktonos, Hellenistic copy after a Greek original created during the 4th century B.C.E. by Praxiteles. Marble. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

87. Anonymous. Aphrodite of Knidos, copy after a Greek original created around 350 B.C.E. by Praxiteles. Marble. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and sex, was renowned for her own beauty. The Aphrodite of Knidos was one of the first nude female sculptures in the Greek world, and caused quite a stir. It portrays Aphrodite as the epitome of female beauty: a goddess, but rendered accessible to mere mortals through her vulnerability. That vulnerability, expressed through the combination of her nudity and her shy stance, was emphasised through the placement of the statue in an outdoor shrine in a place where it could be directly approached and seen up close. The nude Aphrodite became a common subject for sculpture in the fourth century B.C.E. and following, in part due the popularity of this piece. It is also likely that Aphrodite provided sculptors with the opportunity to showcase the female form in a sensual and erotic manner under the guise of a reverential image of a god.

88. Anonymous. Apoxyomenos, copy after a bronze original created around 330 B.C.E. by Lysippos. Marble, h: 205 cm. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

In the fourth century, standing male statues of idealised athletes remained a popular subject for sculpture. The poses became more varied, however, as sculptors experimented with forms that could be viewed from multiple angles. The Apoxyomenos, or Man scraping Himself, is an example of innovation of pose. His right arm extends forward, reaching out of the plane in which the rest of his body lies. Before exercising, a Greek athlete would apply oil to his body. He would then return to the bath house, after engaging in sport, and scrape the oil off himself. The subject of the Apoxyomenos is in the process of scraping himself clean.

89. Anonymous. Hermes tying his Sandal, Roman copy after a Greek original created during the 4th century B.C.E. by Lysippos. Marble, h: 161 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

90. Anonymous. Belvedere Apollo, copy after a Greek original by Leochares created around c. 330 B.C.E. Marble, h: 224 cm.Museo Pio Clementino, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

The Belvedere Apollo has long enjoyed fame, known as the prototypical work of Greek art. This fame springs from its rediscovery during the Renaissance of the fifteenth century. At that time, wealthy Italian nobles began to collect ancient sculpture that was being discovered in the ruins of Roman Italy. The Belvedere Apollo went to the collection of the Pope, and was displayed in the courtyard of the Belvedere villa in the Vatican. There, it was seen by countless visitors and visiting artists, who sketched the piece. Copies were made for various courts of Europe. The proud, princely bearing of the figure, along with the delicate beauty of Apollo’s face, had great appeal among the aristocratic classes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and to the Romantics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

91. Anonymous. Meleager, copy after a Greek original created around c. 340 B.C.E. by Skopas. Marble, h: 123 cm. Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard (United States). Greek Antiquity.

92. Anonymous. Athenian Tombstone, c. 340 B.C.E. Marble, h: 168 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

93. Anonymous. Tombstone from Mnesarete, c. 380 B.C.E. Marble, h: 166 cm. Glyptothek, Munich (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

94. Anonymous. Demeter of Knidos, c. 340–330 B.C.E. Marble, h: 153 cm. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Greek Antiquity.

95. Anonymous. Capitoline Venus, Roman copy after a Greek original created around the 3rd century B.C.E. by Praxiteles. Marble, h: 193 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

96. Anonymous. Playing Girls, end of the 4th century-beginning of the 3rd century B.C.E. Terracotta, h: 26 cm. The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg (Russia). Greek Antiquity.

97. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Velthur Partunus, so-called “Magnate”, third quarter of the 4th century B.C.E. Painted marble and limestone, Museo Archeologico di Tarquinia, Tarquinia (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

98. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas from Tarquinia, 3rd century B.C.E. Nenfro. Museo Archeologico di Tarquinia, Tarquinia (Italy). Etruscan Antiquity.

99. Anonymous. Venus and Cupid, Roman copy after a Greek original created at the end of the 4th century B.C.E., restored at the end of the 17th century by Alessandro Algardi. Marble, h: 174 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

Aphrodite became a common subject for Greek sculptors in the fourth century B.C.E. and later, because her renowned beauty provided an acceptable excuse for an erotic representation of the female body. She is sometimes shown, as here, with her son Eros, known to the Romans as Cupid, and in later art as “putti,” the winged babies symbolising earthly and divine love. In Roman art and mythology, Aphrodite became Venus, goddess of love. To the Romans she had a more elevated status, seen as the progenitor of the line of Caesar, Augustus, and the Julio-Claudian emperors, and by extension as an embodiment of the Roman people. This playful depiction of Aphrodite and Eros, or Venus and Cupid, is more suggestive of the Greek view of Aphrodite, who saw her not only as the symbol of sensual beauty, but also as occasionally silly and humorous.

100. Anonymous. Hermes with the Infant Dionysos, copy after an original created at the end of the 4th century B.C.E. by Praxiteles. Marble, h: 215 cm. Archaeological Museum, Olympia (Greece). Greek Antiquity.

101. Anonymous. Silenus with the Infant Dionysos, Roman copy after a Greek original created during the 4th century B.C.E. Marble, h: 190 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

102. Anonymous. Artemis with a Hind, called “Diane of Versailles”, Roman copy after an original created around 330 B.C.E. by Leochares. Marble, h: 200 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

This depiction of a strong, striding Artemis hunting with a deer by her side is thought to derive from a Greek original of the fourth century B.C.E. Artemis was one of the virgin goddesses, a huntress and protector of the wild and of fertility; her association with fertility made her also the goddess of childbirth. She was a twin to the god Apollo, and copies of this statue are often paired with copies of the Belvedere Apollo. Her dual role as a hunter and a protector of animals is seen in this piece. Although she is hunting, she is accompanied by a deer, or hind, which is under her protection. With one hand, she reaches for an arrow. The other hand has been restored and may have originally held a bow. Her energetic stride, and the movement of her short dress as she walks, is typical of the new variety of poses seen in statues of the fourth century and later.

103. Anonymous. The Barberini Faun, c. 220 B.C.E. Marble, h: 215 cm. Glyptothek, Munich (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

The wealth of the Hellenistic period meant that many people could afford sculpture for their private houses and gardens. Consequently, more profane, even erotic, subjects were introduced to the repertoire of Greek art. Here, a sleeping, and probably drunk, satyr lounges sprawled out on an animal skin. The pose is unabashedly erotic, the figure’s nudity no longer signalling simply that he is a hero, athlete, or god, but rather suggesting his sexual availability. The naturalistic and idealised manner of depiction of the body of the satyr is a legacy of High Classical sculpture.

104. Anonymous. Dying Gaul, Roman copy after a bronze original erected by the kings of Pergamon Attalus I and Eumenes II around 240 B.C.E. Marble, h: 93 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

105. Anonymous. Battle between the Romans and the Germans, Ludovisi Sarcophagus, 3rd century B.C.E. Marble. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

106. Anonymous. Nike of Samothrace, c. 190 B.C.E. Marble, h: 328 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

Following the conquest of Greece, the Near East, and Egypt by Alexander the Great towards the end of the fourth century B.C.E., Greek art entered a new cosmopolitan age, when the wealth and exotic tastes of great foreign kingdoms brought new flair to Greek sculpture and architecture. One of the most dynamic examples of this Hellenistic art is the Nike of Samothrace, which was part of a large installation at a sanctuary on the island of Samothrace in the northern Aegean Sea. In its original setting, the Nike was alighting on the prow of a warship, signalling victory. The prow, carved out of stone, served as the base for the dramatic figure. The whole piece was set into a landscape with a running fountain suggesting the waves of the sea. This combination of landscape, art and drama was characteristic of the Hellenistic period. The figure herself calls to mind the earlier Nike of the fifth century, whose movement caused her robes to drape and fold elegantly around her. Here, however, the viewer can almost feel the wind whipping her garment from all sides. The movement of the fabric, pulling simultaneously in both directions around her legs, gives the piece a dynamism not previously seen in sculpture.

107. Anonymous. Crouching Aphrodite, Roman copy after a Greek original Created during the 3rd (?) century B.C.E. Marble, h: 71 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

108. Anonymous. Aphrodite, type “Venus Genetrix”, Roman copy after a Greek original created at the end of the 5th century B.C.E. by Callimachus (?). Marble, h: 164 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

109. Anonymous. Sleeping Hermaphrodite, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 2nd century B.C.E. (?). Marble, 169 × 89 cm (the mattress was carved in 1619 by Gian Lorenzo Bernini). Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

A young naked woman lying on a bed seems to be resting. But when seen from a different angle, she appears somewhat masculine. We are indeed facing the representation of Hermaphrodite. He was the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, and found himself with both sexes after a nymph he had rejected asked Zeus to fuse them both in one single body. This ambiguous subject was strongly appreciated at the end of the Hellenistic period because of the surprise it created upon the viewer. This Roman copy of a Greek original of the second century B.C.E. continued to fascinate the collectors among which the cardinal Scipione Borghese who commissioned Bernini to sculpt the mattress upon which the Hermaphrodite lays.

110. Anonymous. Athena fighting with the Son of Gaea the Earth Goddess, pedestal frieze, Great Altar of Zeus, Pergamon (Turkey), c. 180 B.C.E. Marble, h: 230 cm. Pergamonmuseum, Berlin (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

The greater-than-life-size figures of this relief adorned the Pergamon altar, a structure at the highest point of the city of Pergamon in Turkey, capital of one of the Hellenistic kingdoms. The sculpture filled the frieze, which wrapped around the outside of the building and along its great staircase. It depicted the battle between the gods and giants. The giants are shown with wings on their backs and snakes emerging from them, in contrast to the gods, shown in typical Greek-style robes. In this fragment, Athena, the central figure, battles with a giant, on the left. She is pulling back his head as he pulls in the opposite direction, trying to escape. At the same time, he struggles to hold onto the hand of his mother, Gaia, the earth and mother of all giants. She is shown at the bottom of the scene, as though emerging from the earth itself. Gaia was the source of all power for the giants, and as long as they touch her they cannot be killed. But this giant has lost his grip, and the winged victory figure already swoops in behind Athena, ready to crown her victor. For Athena, the battle is one. This dramatic battle plays out around the entire frieze, with the same kind of violent struggle seen here. The scene is in high relief, with deeply cut shadows accentuating the drama, and figures spilling off of the wall and onto the staircase.

111. Anonymous. Zeus and Porphyrion during the Battle with the Giants, pedestal frieze, Great Altar of Zeus, Pergamon (Turkey), c. 180 B.C.E. Marble, h: 230 cm. Pergamonmuseum, Berlin (Germany). Greek Antiquity.

112. Anonymous. Laocoön, Roman copy after a bronze original created in Pergame (Turkey) by Agesander, Athenodoros and Polydorus around 150 B.C.E. Marble, h: 242 cm. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

Laocoön was a Trojan priest. When the Achaeans, who were holding Troy under siege, left the famous Trojan horse on the beach, Laocoön tried to warn the Trojan leaders against bringing it into the city, fearing it was a trap. Athena, acting as helper and protector of the Greeks, punished Laocoön for his interference. She had him and his two sons attacked by giant snakes. In this famous sculpture group, probably a Roman copy of the Hellenistic original, one son breaks free of the snakes, looking back to see his father and brother being killed. The baroque style of the piece ties it to the Pergamon school. It exhibits the same drama, seen in the straining muscles and the faces contorted in pain. In fact, the pose of Laocoön seems to echo that of the giant who battle Athena on the Pergamon Altar (see nos. 110, 111).

113. Anonymous. Menelaos with the Body of Patroklos, Roman copy of a Greek original created during the 3rd century B.C.E., restored during the 17th century. Marble, h: 253 cm.Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

114. Anonymous. Ludovisi Group, Roman copy after a bronze original erected by the kings of Pergamon (Turkey), Attalus I and Eumenes II, around 240 B.C.E. Marble, h: 211 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

115. Anonymous. Statue of Antinous, Favourite of Emperor Hadrian, c. 130–138 A.D. Marble, h: 199 cm. Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Delphi (Greece). Roman Antiquity.

116. Anonymous. The Punishment of Dirce, called the “Farnese Bull”, Roman copy of an original created during the 2nd century B.C.E. by Apollonius of Tralles and his brother Tauriscus. Marble, h: 240 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples (Italy). Greek Antiquity.

One of the largest pieces of sculpture created in antiquity, this piece was made during the second century B.C.E., in the Hellenistic period. It has all the hallmarks of Hellenistic sculpture: an elaborate assemblage of multiple figures, dramatic action, and a pyramid-shaped composition. It was made by artists from the Greek island of Rhodes for a Roman politician. This copy decorated the Baths of Caracalla in the later Roman empire. It was there that it was rediscovered in the sixteenth century and placed in the Farnese Palace, a residence of the Pope. The scene depicted is from the story of Antiope and Dirce. Antiope was the mother of twin boys, whom she was forced to abandon. They survived, but her punishment was to be the slave of her aunt, Dirce. She escaped and went to find her sons. Dirce found her and ordered her tied to a bull and trampled. Antiope was rescued by her sons, who instead inflict the punishment on Dirce. Here, the boys tie Dirce to a raging bull; her fate is clear.

117. Anonymous. Aphrodite of Melos, called the “Venus de Milo”, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, h: 202 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

The Aphrodite of Melos, or Venus de Milo, is an original Greek sculpture dating to the Hellenistic period. It was discovered in a field along with other sculptural fragments, including a separate arm holding an apple, which belongs with this figure. The apple is probably a reference to the mythical “Judgment of Paris”. In that tale, the goddess of Discord tossed a golden apple inscribed “for the loveliest” towards the goddesses Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera. The young Trojan prince, Paris, was asked to decide which goddess should be awarded the apple. Each tried to bribe Paris but he chose Aphrodite, who offered him the love of the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. That woman, of course, was Helen of Sparta, already married to the Greek king. Her abduction by Paris started the Trojan War. While Aphrodite is criticised by Homer for her role in starting the conflict, she is celebrated here as the purveyor of true love.

118. Anonymous. Aphrodite, called the “Venus of Arles”, end of the 1st century B.C.E. Marble, h: 194 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

119. Anonymous. The Three Graces, Roman copy of a Greek original created during the 2nd century B.C.E., restored in 1609. Marble, 119 × 85 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.

The Graces, or Charities, were three goddesses named Beauty, Mirth, and Cheer. They oversaw happy events such as dances and banquets. They were companions to Aphrodite, providing the happiness that accompanies love. Like Aphrodite, they were often depicted in the nude, and often, as in this example, dancing in a circle. In each, we see the familiar shift in weight, or contrapposto, developed in the fifth century. However, the composition of this piece is far more elaborate than any High Classical sculpture. It was not until the Hellenistic period that complex groups of multiple figures were depicted in free-standing sculpture. The figures are tied together by their embrace, unifying the piece, yet they face different directions, so that the sculpture would be interesting from any angle from which it was viewed.

120. Anonymous. Portrait of Octavian, 35–29 B.C.E. Marble, h: 74 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

121. Anonymous. Augustus Prima Porta, 50 B.C.E. Marble, h: 104 cm. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, transformed the way art and image were used by the Romans. He rejected the “veristic” style of Roman portraiture, preferring instead to emulate the High Classical style of fifth-century Greece. In this portrait, found at the villa of his wife Livia at Prima Porta, Augustus is shown in a pose that directly quotes Polykleitos’ Doryphoros, the best-known statue of the fifth century. In doing so, Augustus called upon all the associations the High Classical period carried: empire and power, but also democracy. Augustus was trying to appease those who might resent his absolute rule and the end of the Republic. He was at once advertising his strength, and also his role as a fair, democratic leader who would represent the senate and the people of Rome.

122. Anonymous. The Orator (L’Arringatore), Funerary Statue of Aulus Metellus, 2nd-1st century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 179 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

123. Anonymous. Seated Boxer, 100–50 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 128 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

A rare bronze statue that survived from antiquity, this powerful image of a tired boxer is likely an original Hellenistic work, dated perhaps to the first century B.C.E. The seated pose of the boxer invites the viewer to look down at the figure, as he in turn looks up, perhaps to discover the verdict of the judge. He still wears his boxing gloves, and is badly bruised and bleeding, his face and ears swollen from the fight. Despite these wounds, he does not appear defeated. He has all the exaggerated musculature of other Hellenistic works, such as the Laocoön and the Belvedere Torso. His mouth and the cuts on his face are copper additions to the bronze statue, and the eyes would have likewise been made of a different material.

124. Anonymous. Spinario (Boy removing a Thorn from his Foot), Roman bronze copy of a Greek original, 1st century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 73 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

This piece is one of the rare bronze works to survive from antiquity. Created by a Roman artist of the Hellenistic-Roman period, it reflects both the interests of Hellenistic artists as well as the tastes of Roman collectors. The sculptors of the Hellenistic and Roman world drew from a much wider range of subjects than did earlier Greek artists. Their commissions came from private citizens and towns rather than only temples. As Rome became the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, the interests of both collectors and artists began to shift. The “canons” or rules established by Greek artists of earlier periods no longer constrained what artists could do. This representation of a boy removing a thorn from his foot is an example of these innovations, showing a boy in a mundane, everyday act, yet idealised to suit Roman taste. After the statue’s rediscovery in the Middle Ages it became quite influential, and was widely reproduced during the Renaissance.

125. Agasias of Ephesus, Greek. The Fighting Warrior, called the “Borghese Gladiator”, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, h: 199 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

This Roman copy of a Greek original dating, perhaps, to the fourth century B.C.E., was rediscovered in the early seventeenth century and acquired by Cardinal Borghese. A wealthy relative of Pope Paul V, he collected hundreds of statues, many of which were ancient, some of which were contemporary pieces in the style of antiquity. Pieces in the Borghese collection often suffered from unfortunate restorations, though this piece seems to have escaped unmarred. It was later purchased by Napoléon Bonaparte, a relative by marriage of the Borghese family. In that way it made its way to Paris. It was long thought to represent a gladiator, but more recently it has been acknowledged that it could as easily be an athlete or warrior. Much has been made of the ideal musculature and anatomy of the subject. The artist clearly sought to emulate as realistically as possible the form, stance, and sinews of the lunging figure.

126. Anonymous. Tellus Relief, panel, east facade, Ara Pacis Augustae, 13–9 B.C.E. Marble, height of the enclosure: 6 m. Rome (Italy). In situ. Roman Antiquity.

With the Ara Pacis Augustae, the Emperor Augustus makes a complex ideological statement. The building was a monument to the lasting peace Augustus achieved by securing the borders of the empire. Carved in relief inside and out, it depicted an array of symbols, each signalling a component of his message. Inside the altar, bucrania and fruit-bearing garlands suggested the fecundity of Rome and the perpetuity of Rome’s sacrificial offerings to the gods. Outside, the ceremonial dedication of the monument itself was depicted, with a procession that calls to mind the Parthenon frieze. In addition, the exterior has four panels with mythological scenes. Like the procession, it is done in the classicising style of Greek art, adopted by Augustus to suggest a long historical basis for his rule of Rome, and also to call to mind democratic ideals, belying his imperial authority. In this panel, the central female figure probably represents Tellus, or Mother Earth. She holds two babies, representing the fertility of Rome and of the Roman people. The theme of fertility and fecundity is emphasised by the plants and animals at her feet.

127. Anonymous. Roman Aristocrat with Heads of his Ancestors, first quarter of the 1st century B.C.E. Marble. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

In Roman tradition, figural sculpture was not intended to portray a young, athletic ideal, as it was for the Greeks. Instead, it represented the ideal of Roman society: the wise, elder statesman, patriarch of a family, part of a distinguished lineage. Sculptures were portraits of individuals and included all their flaws – wrinkles, warts, funny noses and knobbly knees. This style is called “verism,” meaning truth. It was the dominant style during the Roman Republic. Here, and elderly man holds portrait busts of his ancestors, showing his respect for them, and at the same time drawing attention to his lineage. Such portraits would be prominently displayed in the atrium of the home.

128. Anonymous. Head of Emperor Augustus, 27 B.C.E.-14 A.D. Marble. Roman Antiquity.

129. Anonymous. Portrait of Emperor Tiberius, 14–37 A.D. Marble. Roman Antiquity.

130. Anonymous. Julio-Claudian Princess, 41–54 A.D. Marble, h: 200 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

131. Anonymous. Germanicus, Brother of Emperor Claudius, 41–54 A.D. Marble, h: 180 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

132. Anonymous. Winner Athlete, 1st century A.D., restored in 1781 by Vincenzo Pacetti. Marble, h: 148 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

133. Anonymous. Prisoner Seated, first century A.D. (body), second century A.D. (head). Green breccia and marble, h: 163 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

Images of the barbarian enemies of Rome were common. Often, they are shown as defeated, or as captives of the empire. Many were found in Trajan’s Forum, and are therefore thought to be representations of Dacians, a people of Eastern Europe who were conquered by Trajan. Trajan depicted the defeat of the Dacians in much of the imagery of his reign, because that victory brought great wealth to Rome. Dacia was rich in mineral wealth, including large amounts of gold and silver. That wealth flowed into Rome after the conquest, and allowed Trajan to undertake a major building campaign, including his great Forum and the famous Markets. He also devoted some of the riches to alleviate the suffering of Rome’s poor, providing food for impoverished children. In this image, whose hat and clothing suggest he is a king of Dacia, the enemy is portrayed defeated, but strong and proud. The strength and nobility of Rome’s enemies made her victory over them that much greater.

134. Anonymous. Cameo, called the “Grand Camée de France”, c. 23–29 A.D. Five-layered sardonyx, 31 × 26.5 cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

135. Anonymous. Gemma Augustea, after 10 A.D. Two-layered onyx, h: 19 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria). Roman Antiquity.

This cameo pendant is carved out of a multi-veined onyx, a stone with variegated layers of dark blue and white running through it. The white layer has been carved into a figured design, partially revealing the underlying dark blue layer, which provides a background colour. It is remarkable for its size, since it is rare to have such a large stone with enough consistency in its layers to produce a piece of this scale (23 cmwide). The scene is carved in two registers. The lower register shows the end of a battle, with Roman soldiers erecting triumphal trophies near several enemy prisoners. Above, the Emperor Augustus is shown seated next to Roma, the female embodiment of Rome. Augustus is crowned with a laurel wreath. To the left, the stepson and successor of Augustus, Tiberius, arrives in a chariot. The piece asserts the power of Augustus while affirming his support for Tiberius as successor. The military scene at the bottom is a reminder of Tiberius’ success on the battlefield, a reminder of his qualification as the next emperor.

136. Anonymous. Athena, also called “Pallas of Velletri”, Roman copy of a Greek original in bronze created around 470 B.C.E. and attributed to Cresilas, 1st century A.D. Marble, h: 305 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

137. Anonymous. Bust of Woman, called “Bust Fonseca”, beginning of the second century A.D. Marble, h: 63 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

While Roman male portraiture often retained elements of the veristic style of the Roman Republic, portraying realistic images of rulers and aristocrats, female portraits were usually of the idealised, classicising style. In this portrait, the woman’s face is delicate and softly contoured, perpetually youthful. The gentle modelling of the face is accentuated by the intricate patterning of her hair, carved into an elaborate pile of curls that was the style at the time. The artist has used the hairstyle to exhibit his skill, employing a fine drill to carve deeply into each ringlet of hair.

138. Anonymous. Bust of Emperor Nero, 54–68 A.D. (face), seventeenth century (head and bust). Marble, h: 66 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

139. Anonymous. The Tiber, adaptation of an original created around 250–200 B.C.E. in Alexandria (Egypt), c. 90–140 A.D. Marble, h: 165 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

140. Anonymous. Relief Figuring a Bull Sacrifice, 69–96 A.D. Marble. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

141. Anonymous. Procession of the Followers of Bacchus, 1st century A.D. Marble. The British Museum, London (United Kingdom). Roman Antiquity.

142. Anonymous. Relief, called “The Sacrificing”, 2nd century A.D. Marble, 68 × 150 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

143. Anonymous. Relief, called “The Borghese Dancers”, 2nd century A.D. Marble, 73 × 185 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

This is an example of a low-relief panel, a scene whose elements rise from the background in differing levels of relief. The lowest level, barely emerging from the background, is a Corinthian colonnade. Centred between each column is a female figure, whose flowing drapery forms the next level of relief. The figures themselves are in much higher relief, with arms fully freed from the background panel. The dancers move in opposite directions, hands clasped, their tunics billowing behind them as they move. It is not known where the panel was originally placed; it was rediscovered in the Renaissance and displayed in the Villa Borghese.

144. Anonymous. Atalanta, 2nd century A.D., restored during the 17th century. Marble, h: 122 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

145. Anonymous. Centaur being ridden by Cupid, 1st-2nd century A.D. Marble, 147 × 107 × 52 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

146. Anonymous. Minerva, also called “Roma”, 2nd century A.D., restored during the 18th century. Red porphyry and gilded bronze, h: 147 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

147. Anonymous. The Elderly Fisherman, or “The Death of Seneca”, 2nd century A.D. Black marble and alabaster, h: 121 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

148. Anonymous. Praying Woman (Orans), 2nd century A.D., restored during the 16th century by the workshop of the family della Porta. Porphyry, red, white and green marble, h: 204 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

149. Anonymous. Artemis of Ephesus, 2nd century A.D. Bronze and alabaster. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

150. Anonymous. Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, column base, Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, c. 141 A.D. Marble. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

151. Anonymous. Thetis Albani, 2nd century A.D., restored during the 18th century. Marble, h: 211 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

152. Anonymous. Bust of Antinous, called “Antinous Mondragone”, c. 130 A.D. Marble, h: 95 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

153. Anonymous. Bust of Poet, called “Sabine Richelieu”, c. 120 A.D. Marble, h: 65 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

154. Anonymous. Statue called “Julian Apostate”, 2nd century A.D. Marble, h: 180 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

155. Anonymous. Emperor Claudius as Jupiter, 41–54 A.D. Marble. Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

156. Anonymous. The Lansdowne Heracles, c. 125 A.D. Marble, h: 193.5 cm. J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (United States). Roman Antiquity.

157. Anonymous. Portrait of Emperor Septimius Severus, 194–211 A.D. Marble. Roman Antiquity.

158. Anonymous. Portrait of Emperor Antoninus Pius, c. 150 A.D. Marble. Skultpturensammlung, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden (Germany). Roman Antiquity.

159. Anonymous. Portrait of Emperor Caracalla, 215–217 A.D. Marble, h: 72 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

Caracalla was part of a lineage of emperors that took over after the cruel Commodus was murdered. Several military leaders tried unsuccessfully to rule Rome, until Caracalla’s father, Septimus Severus, a popular general, was declared emperor. Severus tried to legitimise his rule by declaring himself part of the previous dynasty, the Antonines. His portraits therefore intentionally resemble those of the earlier rulers. Caracalla, however, is portrayed in a more realistic manner, one that expresses his own cruel nature. In this portrait, his critical, angry expression and pugnacious visage reveal both his physical appearance and his personality. He has eschewed the drilled, corkscrew style hair and beard of his predecessors in favour of a shorter style. His portrait reveals that he had no use for links to a dynastic past; his power would come from his own strength and vengeful acts.

160. Anonymous. Bust of Commodus as Heracles, 180–193 A.D. Marble, h: 133 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

This portrait of the Roman Emperor Commodus shows him in the guise of Heracles, the great hero of myth. Commodus was one of the more deranged and tyrannical emperors, and one of his follies was to imagine himself as Heracles. He changed his name to Heracles Romanus and forced the Senate to declare him a god. This portrait is in some ways typical of the portraiture of the time. It shows the emperor as young and bearded, which was the standard style since Hadrian. His face is given a classicising, elegant appearance, yet the hooded eyes were particular to Commodus and show this to be, at least to some degree, a likeness. The emperor’s hair and beard have finely-drilled curls (see no. 137). Otherwise, however, the portrait is rather unusual. Commodus is draped in the lion skin worn by Heracles, held in place by the knotted front legs of the beast. He holds Heracles’ club in one hand, and the apples of the Hesperides, from the mythical labours of Heracles, in the other. Other than the lion skin, he is bare-chested, another sign of his supposed divinity.

161. Anonymous. Man in Toga coming from Periate, c. 260–270 A.D. Bronze, 160 × 65 cm. Museo Arqueológico y Etnológico de Granada, Granada (Spain). Roman Antiquity.

162. Anonymous. Portrait of Caius Julius Pacatianus, end of the 2nd century A.D. – beginning of the 3rd century A.D. Bronze, h: 210 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Vienne (France). Roman Antiquity.

Continuing the tradition established by the Etruscans many centuries earlier, this bronze portrait statue represents an elder male, perhaps a statesman. Most likely meant for display in family’s home, or villa, this piece commemorates the “pater familias,” or high-ranking male family member. By the third century, the toga, worn by this figure, was not generally a quotidian garment. Instead, it was worn for ceremonial purposes, and signified the citizenship and importance of the wearer.

163. Anonymous. Venus of Nîmes, 3rd-4th century A.D. Marble. Musée archéologique, Nîmes (France). Roman Antiquity.

164. Anonymous. The Pillar of St Landry: Goddess Holding a Torch, second half of the 2nd century A.D. Limestone. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

165. Anonymous. Nautes Pillar (discovered on the Ile de la Cité, Paris), 14–37 A.D. Stone, original height: more than 250 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

This monument comes from Roman Gaul, from soon after the Romans had taken control of Paris. The pillar, dating to the early first century A.D. was originally erected in a Gallo-Roman temple. A Christian cathedral was built on the site in the sixth century, later replaced by the church of Notre-Dame de Paris. The broken pillar was found within the foundation of Notre-Dame. It speaks to the religious transformation that must have taken place after the Roman takeover of Gaul. It was dedicated to the Roman god Jupiter by Parisian sailors, but also included the names of gods of Gaul, demonstrating that worship of the old gods was still allowed under Roman rule. This remarkable work preserves not only early Gallo-Roman history, but also a non-imperial style of art that retained Celtic characteristics.

166. Anonymous. Arch of Constantine, 312–315 A.D. Marble, 21 × 25.7 × 7.4 m. Rome (Italy). In situ. Roman Antiquity.

Triumphal arches were erected throughout the course of the Roman empire, commemorating the achievements and victories of various emperors. The Arch of Constantine, an emperor famous for making Christianity the official religion of the late empire, is interesting because it re-used panels and figures from older Roman monuments. Such re-use is known as “spolia”. Spoliation was done for several reasons; in part, it was simple economical recycling. Rather than quarrying new stone and paying artisans to carve it, pieces could be taken from older monuments and incorporated into a new one. There was an additional, ideological motivation. In the case of Constantine’s arch, he chose reliefs and figures from the greatest moments of the Roman Empire to stress the continuity of his rule with that of past emperors, despite the changes in political structure and religious authority during his rule.

167. Anonymous. The Tetrarchs: Diocletian, Maxentius, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius, 4th century A.D. Porphyry. South facade of the San Marco basilica in Venice (Italy). In situ. Byzantine.

The third century was a turbulent time in the Roman Empire, with constant civil war and a series of military leaders vying for power. When Diocletian became emperor in 284, he chose to solidify his rule by sharing power with his rivals. He established a tetrarchy, or rule by four. Diocletian took the title of Augustus of the east, with a corresponding Augustus of the west, and secondary rulers of east and west called Caesars. Marriages were arranged among members of the tetrarchs’ families to reinforce the relationships. Although this power arrangement was unusual, it was surprisingly effective, and order was maintained until Diocletian retired, at which point the division between east and west fractured the empire for good. This portrait of the four tetrarchs is notably different than earlier portraits of emperors. The classicising style of depiction has been discarded in favour of the native, plebeian style of art, long seen in pieces such as funerary reliefs, but rarely in imperial monuments. Plebeian art is characterised by the stocky proportions and stylised presentation of the body, as seen here. This style was probably introduced to imperial art via the series of military leaders who served as emperor during the third century, and brought with them the plebeian vernacular.

168. Anonymous. Missorium of Theodosius I, 387–388 A.D. Silver partly gilted, diameter: 74 cm. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid (Spain). Early Christian.

On this engraved and chased silver and ceremonial plate, a complex image of imperial power and piety is shown. Commemorating the tenth year of the rule of Theodosius I, the plate shows the emperor enthroned in a Christ-like pose with a halo above his head. Theodosius banned pagan religions, making Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire. Under Theodosius, there was a “renaissance” of artistic expression in which the pictorial style of the Late Antique is again imbued with Classicism. Constantinople became the cultural centre of the Empire, replacing Rome.

169. Anonymous. Sarcophagus from Acilia, 260–270 A.D. Marble.Palazzo Massino, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

170. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Constantina, second third of the 4th century A.D. Porphyry. Museo Pio Clementino Vatican (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

Beginning in the second century, Romans began to favour inhumation, rather than cremation, as a funerary practice. As a consequence, the stone coffins called “sarcophagi” were produced. Each sarcophagus was decorated with more or less elaborate figural scenes, depending on the taste and the wealth of the deceased. The sarcophagi were usually placed within tombs that were frequently visited by the living relations of the deceased, so the effort spent in carving them was appreciated for many years. Christians living within the Roman Empire also preferred inhumation to cremation; in fact, it is possible that Christian customs influenced the change in funerary practices of the pagans. The sarcophagi for Christian burials were decorated, of course, with Christian symbols such as the cross, but many pagan symbols were also co-opted for used by the Christian religion, and so there is frequently a combination of both pagan and Christian iconography on early Christian sarcophagi.

This sarcophagus, made out of rich, purple stone called porphyry, may have been the resting place of Emperor Constantine’s daughter, Constantina. Constantine is generally known as the first Christian emperor, though in fact his real contribution to the cause of Christianity was to legalise and promote the religion. He seems to have converted to Christianity late in his life; he may or may not have been truly faithful. Adding to the mystery of the faith of the emperor is the imagery on his daughter’s sarcophagus. The scenes of winged putti figures could be pagan images of a festival for Bacchus, the god of wine. Alternatively, they could be a Christianised version of the motif, in which the imagery of wine represents the blood of Christ.

171. Anonymous. Portrait Bust of Eutropios, second half of the 5th century A.D. Marble, h: 32 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria). Byzantine.

172. Anonymous. Colossal Head of Emperor Constantine I “the Great”, 313–324 A.D. Marble, h: 260 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.

Though only fragments of the colossal statue of Emperor Constantine remain, the impressive head, standing over 2.4 metres, conveys the power the seated portrait must have had. It originally stood in the Basilica of Constantine, a massive structure built of concrete barrel and groin vaults. The ingenious groin vaults allowed light to flood the Basilica, illuminating the richly decorated interior and the apse at the west end, where the statue of Constantine sat. The short, cropped hair and beardless face of the emperor was intended to evoke earlier rulers from the golden age of the empire, such as Augustus and Trajan. The fragments that remain are from the head, hands, and feet of the emperor, the only parts of the statue made of marble. The rest would have been made of less expensive materials, such as wood.

173. Anonymous. Theodosius receiving the Tribute of the Barbarians, detail of the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius, 390–393 A.D. Marble, h: 430 cm. Hippodrome, Istanbul (Turkey). In Situ. Roman Antiquity/Byzantine.

This sculpted base was created to hold an obelisk imported to Constantinople, modern Istanbul, from Egypt by the Emperor Theodosius. The obelisk was erected at the ancient Hippodrome, where chariot racing was held. On each side of the base, Theodosius is shown along with members of his family and court, seated at the Hippodrome. Surrounded by a crowd of faces, he watches the races and observes the obelisk as it is raised. The scenes memorialise the accomplishment of obtaining and erecting the obelisk, and also remind all who would see it that Theodosius was responsible. The flat depiction of the figures, the lack of perspective or three-dimensional space, and the varying scale of the figures is more indicative of the art of the Middle Ages than that of the Roman Empire.

174. Anonymous. Sarcophagus with Biblical Scenes, c. 390 A.D. Marble (moulding). Basilica Sant’Ambrogio, Milan (Italy). Early Christian.

175. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Traditio Legis, Christ Handing the Law to St Peter, c. 390 A.D. Marble (moulding). Basilica Sant’Ambrogio, Milan (Italy). Early Christian.

176. Anonymous. Sarcophagus with Symbolic Decoration, c. 500 A.D. Marble. Basilica Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (Italy). Early Christian.

177. Anonymous. Sarcophagus said “of St Barbatian”, second quarter of the 5th century A.D. Marble. Cathedral, Ravenna (Italy). Early Christian.

178. Anonymous. Sarcophagus, called “Sarcophagus of Archbishop Theodore”, end of the 5th century, beginning of the 6th century A.D. Marble. Basilica Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (Italy). Early Chirstian

The peacock was a powerful symbol in early Christianity. It served as a symbol of immortality, since it sheds and renews its feathers annually. It was also believed that the flesh of a peacock will not decompose upon its death, symbolic of the Christian soul. The many colours of the plumage represented the full spiritual spectrum, and the eye-like patterns on its feathers represented the all-seeing power of God. Here, two peacocks flank the superimposed Greek letters chi and rho, symbolising Christ. The elegance of the carving of this sarcophagus shows the strong classicising style as it continued in Christian art.

179. Anonymous. Sarcophagus with Mixed Decoration, 4th century A.D. Marble, 47 × 200 × 72 cm. Musée Lapidaire, Nîmes (France). Early Christian.

180. Anonymous. Plaque from the Diptych of Consul Areobindus, c. 506 A.D. Ivory, 39 × 13 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Early Christian.

In this ivory relief carving, the flat, descriptive style of the Middle Ages is fully realised. The Consul Areobindus is shown seated on an elaborate throne surrounded by symbols of his office. The patterning of the Consul’s robes, and the expressiveness of his face highlight the effectiveness of this style. The Consul is presiding over a spectacle in the Hippodrome in Constantinople, shown below. Men are shown engaged in an animal hunt while a crowd looks on. The lower scene combines a birds-eye view of the sport with a eye-level view of the crowd. This combination of perspectives is part of the descriptive, rather than realistic, style of the Middle Ages. This ivory object was originally part of a hinged diptych. The two pieces, like covers of a book, held a wax rewriteable tablet.

181. Anonymous. Ariadne and her Cortege, beginning of the 6th century A.D. Ivory, 40 × 14 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Byzantine.