Читать книгу 1000 Scupltures of Genius - Patrick Bade - Страница 7

182. Anonymous. Equestrian Statuette: Charlemagne or Charles the Bold, 9th century. Bronze formerly gilded, h: 25 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Carolingian.

A rare example of the art of Carolingian bronze makers, this statue represents a sovereign, Charlemagne, on horseback. Inspired by Antique equestrian statues, it undoubtedly finds its inspiration in works such as the statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, in which Carolingian artists saw the Emperor Constantine crushing paganism. This error of attribution would explain the parallel between the two works: Charlemagne, as the emperor of the West (800–814) had to protect and spread the word of the Roman Catholic religion.

This very beautiful example was rediscovered in 1807 by Alexandre Lenoir, creator of the Museum of French Monuments, in the inventory of the cathedral of Metz. It was kept for a long time in his personal collection, then passed into the collection of the City of Paris before becoming part of the Louvre museum’s collection.

Cast in three parts (horse, body on the saddle, and head), this group, whose furnishings, globe and sword, have partly disappeared, presented the Charlemagne as a conqueror, a “new Caesar”.

After the demise of the Roman Empire, all of the art forms declined across western Europe, and a whole set of stylistic and iconographic traditions essentially disappeared. In this political and artistic vacuum, a number of new styles arrived with the cultures that introduced them. The tribal movements in the north brought with them animal art, stylised and small-scale works. The art of such groups as the Vikings and Hiberno-Saxons, who specialised in stylised animal forms and the invention of intricate and abstract knot and weave designs, stands as good examples of the style that succeeded the waning of the heavily figural tradition of the ancient Romans.

In time, some of the core cultures in western Europe turned again to ancient Roman models for guides. Towards the year 800, Charlemagne’s writers and artists very consciously set out to revive ancient models in order to suggest his political revival of the Roman Empire, and certain specimens of Carolingian sculpture are based, if somewhat naively, on ancient Roman prototypes. A more broadly-based spirit of revival occurred in the Romanesque style, which was flourishing by 1000 A.D. and left its mark on Europe during the next two centuries or so. Just as Romanesque architects re-utilised the rounded arches, wall masses, and barrel-vaults of the Romans, artists attempted to revitalise sculpture by creating monumental and extensive programmes for ecclesiastical exteriors. As for stylistic particulars, a few Romanesque sculptors looked, sometimes with startling fidelity, to the models of the Roman past, basing their works, whether capitals or portrait heads, on originals from antiquity. These were in something of a minority, however, and more generally the Romanesque figural style was varied and novel, sometimes rendered with great elongation or, on the other hand, with squat proportions.

Many monumental Romanesque works responded to the great movement of pilgrims from site to site, and frightening Last Judgments or memorable images of the Second Coming of Christ served as a reminder of this before the entrance portals, as they did at the cathedrals at Autun and Vézelay. The effective placing of figures in the tympana and in the trumeaux at the entrance doors caught the attention of those entering. Half hidden in the pier of the trumeau at Saint-Pierre Abbey Church in Moissac, the prophet Jeremiah twists and turns, his expressive elongation and thin drapery folds representing a new kind of ecstatic artistry. No less expressive is the Christ figure at Saint-Lazare Cathedral of Autun; his thin and angular body conveying the spiritual sense of his ascension to Heaven. In the tympanum, we have a record of the name of the master, Gislebertus, an early example of the growing status of the artist, who in this case proudly signed his work.

It is impossible to separate the development of Gothic sculpture from the rise of new forms in architecture. The sculptural programmes in Gothic cathedrals exploded in variety and subject matter. There occurred the addition of the numerous jamb figures along the sides of the doors, and overhead a stunning crowd of saints, prophets, angels, and others occupied the ever-deepening plane of the wall. Some of the early Gothic figures, such as the jamb figures at Notre Dame at Chartres, were linear and columnar, to represent their sustaining role in the Church, but in general, compared to their Romanesque predecessors, the Gothic figures became softer, more realistic, and more sensitively human. Christ over the main portal at Chartres is forgiving and humane, his body supple and plausibly real.

Even further from the stiff Romanesque style is the courtly Gothic of the later Middle Ages. Here the hip-short stance is an elegant replacement of the antique contrapposto stance, and sometimes a rubbery S-curve or arc runs through the figures. The French late Gothic tradition, in particular, was marked by a courtly elegance and suave sophistication. Especially strongly in the last phases of the Gothic style, the gentle smile on the faces and the curving lines were markedly “pretty” rather than incisive in narrative. The late Gothic manner started in France but radiated outwards, and was manifested throughout Europe, and echoes of it are found in Italy, Germany, the Low Countries, and elsewhere. The elaborate late Gothic building style is often echoed in reliquaries of the period, which sculptors crafted using the florid architectural language of the time.

During the Gothic period, some sculptors relied on ancient prototypes. The master of the Annunciation group at Reims was clearly looking at Roman models, and the Italian Nicola Pisano did the same. Indeed, the rebirth of sculpture in Italy began in the 1200s in the hands of Nicola, whose marble pulpits (see nos. 301, 302) and other works drew on both the formal models and the overall spirit of the ancient Roman style as he knew it from sarcophagi in the camposanto (cemetery) of Pisa. Like other aspects of the early rebirth of classical culture, Nicola’s innovations had only a limited impact, and even his own son Giovanni Pisano turned to an expressive Gothic manner reminiscent of the art of late medieval northern Europe.

If the French developed a witty and decorous courtly Gothic, and the Italians carved their figures in a way at times dependent on grave classical models, the Germans had their own expressive mode. The Röttgen Pietà is emblematic of this, with its clotted blood and tortured body of Christ calling attention to the suffering of Christ rather than his perfection of form. Later the German Veit Stoss, encasing his narrative scenes in intricate Gothic frames, filled the spaces with melancholy figures, their draperies full of emotional movement and spatial clustering. This kind of expressionism was found in late Gothic German painting too, and would have an effect even on German Expressionists of the twentieth century, who looked back at the vigorous traditions of their national past.

We know the names of a few Romanesque sculptors, but the authorship of far more works is established by the Gothic period, so that known artists began to replace the largely anonymous craftsmen of earlier times. This is an aspect of the individualism of modern times. Other characteristics of the late medieval style seemed to mark the end of an era. The historian Johan Huizinga noted the weariness and melancholy embodied in the late Gothic, and he thought the works to be too abundantly endowed with iconographic niceties and disguised symbolism, where apparently everyday objects bore a religious meaning. This incorporation of the vividness of daily life with religious iconography is clearly seen in the development of passion-plays, in which the Passion of Christ was acted out in public plays throughout Europe in the fifteenth century. The elaborate sculptural projects of the Passion were related to this theatrical trend, and there was an obvious visual interplay between the two art forms.

183. Nino Pisano, 1343–1368, Italian. La Madonna del Latte, c. 1345. Polychrome marble, h: 91 cm. Museo Nazionale di San Matteo, Pisa (Italy). Gothic.

184. Anonymous. The Emperor Triumphant, Barberini Ivory, leaf of a diptych, first half of the 6th century. Ivory and traces of inlay, 34.2 × 26.8 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Byzantian (?).

185. Workshop of the Palace of Charlemagne. David and St Gerome, Dagulf ivory plaques, before 795. Ivory, 16.8 × 8.1 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Carolingian.

186. Anonymous. Paliatto, relief from Salerno (Italy), c. 1084. Ivory and traces of gilding, h: 24.5 cm. Museo Diocesano, Salerno (Italy). Early Middle Ages.

187. Anonymous. Coronation of Emperor Otto II and Theophanu, 982–983. Elephant Ivory and traces of polychromy, 18 × 10 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Early Middle Ages.

188. Anonymous. Plaque with the Journey to Emmaus and the Noli Me Tangere, 1115–1120. Ivory and traces of gilding, 27 × 13.5 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (United States). Early Middle Ages.

This small plaque is currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It is of Spanish origin, but its original context is not known. It is assumed to be part of a series of images showing the life of Christ. The two scenes show Christ after his resurrection. At the top he appears to two disciples, who do not recognise him. The men are in the middle of a journey. Their conversation and movement as they walk are conveyed through the gestures of the figures. In the lower scene, Mary Magdalene recognises Christ. He tells her not to touch him, or “Noli me tangere”. His broad gestures indicate this, and also indicate his other command, that she pass along the news of his resurrection to the disciples.

189. Anonymous. Annunciation to the Shepherds, Birth of Christ, Magi before King Herod and Adoration of the Magi, west panel of the door, St. Maria im Capitol Church, Cologne (Germany), c. 1065. Polychrome wood, h: 474 cm. In situ. Roman.

190. Anonymous. Capital, cloister, former Saint-Pierre Abbey Church, Moissac (France), 1100. In situ. Roman.

191. Anonymous. Harpies, capital of the cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), 1085–1100. In situ. Roman.

192. Anonymous. Samson and the Lion, capital of the transept cross, La Brède Church, La Brède (France), 12th century. Stone, h: 55 cm. Musée d’Aquitaine, Bordeaux (France). Roman.

With the Romanesque sculpture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries there was a revival of stone carving after centuries of dormancy in that art form. Undoubtedly inspired by the fragmentary remains of Roman art still standing in Western Europe, artists of the Romanesque period expressed themselves with a new vivaciousness and spirit. Most of this energy was focused on the architectural details of churches and cloisters, such as the capitals of columns, like the one shown here. Each capital bore a different image, such as a story from the Bible or a mythical creature or demon. The liveliness and imagination expressed in these sculptures were, perhaps, uplifting to those worshipping in the churches or cloisters they decorated. This example shows Samson, a hero of the Israelites, known for his great strength. One of his feats was to fight and kill a lion. He is shown at the moment of the kill, overpowering the great beast. While the proportions make the piece almost like a caricature, the naturalism of the spiralling plants in the background, and the emotional quality of Samson’s facial expression lend an honesty and dignity to the work.

193. Anonymous. Capital, imbedded column, San Martín Church, Frómista (Spain), last quarter of the 11th century. In situ. Roman.

194. Rénier de Huy, died 1150, Belgian. Baptismal Font, Saint-Barthelemy Church, Liège (Belgium), beginning of the 12th century. Bronze. In situ. Roman.

Few sculptors of the Romanesque period are known by name; one is Rainer de Huy, a bronze worker from Belgium. His Baptismal Font is remarkable in that, despite its large scale, it was cast in a single piece, demonstrating the skill of the craftsman. The main register on the basin shows the baptism of Christ. The figure of Christ, standing waist-deep in a stylised pool of water, is flanked by John the Baptist on one side and a pair of angels on the other. Below are twelve oxen, on which the weight of the font appears to rest. The oxen are a reference to the twelve cast oxen of King Solomon’s temple in the Book of Kings, seen by Christians as presaging the twelve Apostles. The figures are in high relief, escaping the bounds of the background. That energy is seen especially in the oxen, whose poses and individuality add vitality to the piece.

195. Anonymous. Baptismal Font, Evangelical Church, Freudenstadt (Germany), second half of the 11th century. Sandstone, h: 100 cm.In situ. Roman.

196. Anonymous. Baptismal Font, Tower of Saint James Church, Avebury (United Kingdom), beginning of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

197. Anonymous. Virgin in Majesty, beginning of the 12th century. Polychrome wood, h: 73 cm.Musée Bargoin, Clermont-Ferrand (France). Roman.

198. Anonymous. Gold Majesty of St Foy, treasure of goldsmithery, Sainte-Foy Abbey Church, Conques-en-Rouergue (France), 9th-16th century. Heart made of if wood, gold leaves, silver, enamel and precious stones, h: 85 cm. In situ. Roman.

It became customary in the Middle Ages to preserve the relics of a saint. Relics were any physical remains of the saint, usually bones from the body. The relics were usually kept in jewelled boxes called reliquaries. The desire to see, touch, and pray over the relics of a saint contributed to the popularity of the pilgrimage, in which devout Christians would travel great distances to visit relics of saints. This is the reliquary of St Foy, a young girl put to death by the Romans because she refused to worship pagan idols. The relics of that saint, a fragment of her skull, were acquired by the abbey church of Conques in France, and this beautiful reliquary was created to hold them. The saint was said to perform miracles on behalf of those who visited her relics, and the ensuing popularity of the reliquary made it necessary to rebuild the church to accommodate all the visitors, as Conques became an important church on the pilgrimage route.

199. Anonymous. Virgin of Montserrat, called La Moreneta, sanctuary of the Black Virgin, Montserrat Monastery, Montserrat (France), beginning of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

200. Anonymous. Madonna with Child, Notre-Dame Church, Orcival (France), c. 1170. Walnut, silver and gilded silver, h: 74 cm. In situ. Roman.

During the Romanesque period, sculpture in the round was rare; the Church opposed icons because devotion to them was seen as worship of a graven image, prohibited by the Ten Commandments of the Old Testament. However, pilgrims and other worshippers filled the churches along the pilgrimage route, and to accommodate the crowd, altars and stations were set up within the naves and ambulatories of the churches. These altars often included a reliquary or statue such as this one, which served as the focal point of prayer.

This statue of the Virgin is made of wood and partially covered in silver and gilded silver plating. The répoussé decoration on the throne and the gown of the Virgin reflects the metalwork traditions of earlier period, on decorated objects such as manuscript covers and reliquaries. The architectural motif on the throne is typical of statues of this type and symbolises the church. The Virgin herself forms a throne for Christ; in this embodiment she is known as the “Throne of Wisdom”. Christ holds a Bible in one hand while the other is raised in a gesture of benediction.

201. Anonymous. Virgin from Ger, Santa Coloma in Ger Parish Church, Santa Coloma en Ger (Spain), second half of the 12th century. Wood carving with polychromy in tempera, 52.5 × 20.5 × 14.5 cm. Museo Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona (Spain). Roman.

202. Anonymous. Tympanon, Puerta del Cordero, San Isidoro Collegiate, León (Spain), beginning of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

203. Anonymous. Altar, Santa Maria Parish Church, Taüll (Spain), second half of the 12th century. Pinewood carving with polychromy in tempera, 135 × 98 cm. Museo Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona (Spain). Roman.

204. Anonymous. Christ in Majesty, Cathedral, Rodez (France), 12th century. Marble, 53 × 44.5 cm. Musée Fenaille, Rodez (France). Roman.

205. Anonymous. Elijah’s Episcopal Throne, San Nicola Basilica, Bari (Italy), 1105. Marble. In situ. Roman.

206. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Infanta Doña Sancha, San Salvador y San Ginés Church, Jaca (Spain), c. 1100. In situ. Roman.

207. Gislebertus, French. The Last Judgment, main portal tympanum, Saint-Lazare Cathedral, Autun (France), 1130–1145. In situ. Roman.

On the tympanum of the portal of Saint-Lazare in Autun, the details of the Last Judgment are played out in vivid details. Christ is shown in the centre, as judge. The weighing of souls is shown to the right of Christ, and the blessed are then separated from the damned. The torture of the damned is shown in terrifying detail. The blessed, in contrast, are helped by angels to reach heaven. Below, a line of souls await their judgment. Anyone passing through this portal would be faced with a vivid reminder of what the fate of the sinner would be.

208. Anonymous. South-Side Portal, former Saint-Pierre Abbey Church, Moissac (France), 1110–1130. In situ. Roman.

Carving the portals of churches in the Romanesque period was part of a general desire to decorate and beautify a building dedicated to God. The motifs were chosen from the Old and New Testaments, a pictorial art, in opposition to the abstract animal interlace found in the Celtic art of the preceding period. Illustrating the portals with personages from the Bible was done to instruct and inspire a largely illiterate population. The portal at Moissac is typical in terms of what is shown: the Theophany, or end of time. Christ is shown in the centre, surrounded by the symbols of the four Evangelists. Lined up around them in three registers are the Twenty-Four Elders who would stand by Christ on Judgment Day. Moissac is unusual, however, for the style of the carving. The figures represent an ecstatic, metaphysical experience. They are supposed to be imbued with the Holy Spirit, and are therefore shown a dynamic state of movement.

209. Gislebertus, French. Flight into Egypt, capital of the chancel, Saint-Lazare Cathedral, Autun (France), 1120–1130. Salle capitulaire de la cathédrale Saint-Lazare, Autun (France). Roman.

210. Gislebertus, French. The Annunciation to the Magi, upper level of a capital from the chancel of the Saint-Lazare Cathedral, Autun (France), 1120–1130. Salle capitulaire de la cathédrale Saint-Lazare, Autun (France). Roman.

This capital from the church of Saint-Lazare in Autun is masterful in how much it conveys through a simple, effective composition. The three kings, or magi, are shown sleeping. They are identified by their number and their crowns. As they sleep, they have a vision of an angel, only the upper part of whom is shown, the rest hidden behind the blanket of the sleeping magi. The angel gestures to the magi, and to the star above them, and we can almost hear his directions to them. The lines marking the folds of the angel’s robes, and of the blanket, add dynamism to the composition that evokes the swirling drapery of the Parthenon’s metopes (see nos. 60, 61, 62).

211. Anonymous. Evil and Hedonism, west wall, south portal porch, former Saint-Pierre Abbey Church, Moissac (France), 1120–1135. In situ. Roman.

212. Anonymous. Column, reverse of the facade, Sainte-Marie Abbey Church, Souillac (France), 1120–1135. In situ. Roman.

213. Anonymous. Prophet Isaiah, door jamb from the ancient west portal, Sainte-Marie Abbey Church, Souillac (France), 1120–1135. In situ. Roman.

The figure of Isaiah from Souillac is in the same dynamic state of ecstasy as the figures on the Moissac portal. The sculpture decorates the door jamb of the abbey church of Sainte Marie. Showing evidence of the influence of Gaulish art in the elongated proportions of the figure, as well as a classicising influence seen in the movement of the drapery around the figure, this sculpture embodies the developed French school of Romanesque art. No longer flat, frontal and schematic like the art of the Late Antique, this figure is all pose and movement.

214. Gislebertus, French. Eve’s Temptation, lintel, north portal, Saint-Lazare Cathedral, Autun (France), c. 1130. Limestone, 72 × 131 cm. Musée Rolin, Autun (France). Roman.

215. Anonymous. Portal, south-side transept, former Saint-Pierre-de-la-Tour Collegiate Church, Aulnay-de-Saintonge (France), c. 1130. In situ. Roman.

216. Anonymous. The Last Judgment, west portal tympanum, Sainte-Foy Abbey Church, Conques-en-Rouergue (France), 12th-14th century. 360 × 670 cm. In situ. Roman.

217. Anonymous. The Last Judgment and the Infernals, south portal tympanum, Saint-Pierre Abbey Church, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne (France), 1130–1140. In situ. Roman.

218. Anonymous. The Ascension, central arcade of the upper level of the eastern facade, Saint-Pierre Cathedral, Angoulême (France), 1110–1128. In situ. Roman.

219. Anonymous. South portal with animal columns, St Mary and St David Church, Kilpeck (United Kingdom), c. 1140. In situ. Roman.

220. Anonymous. Capital, crypt, Canterbury Cathedral, Canterbury (United Kingdom), 1100–1120. In situ. Roman.

221. Anonymous. The Suffering of Job, capital of the cloister, Pamplona Cathedral, Pamplona (Spain) c. 1145. Museo de Navarra, Pamplona (Spain). Roman.

222. Anonymous. Capital Adorned with Figures, St. Servatius Collegiate Church, Quedlinburg (Germany), c. 1129. In situ. Roman.

223. Anonymous. Harpies facing Each Other, double capitals, c. 1140–1145. Limestone, 26.1 × 41.2 × 30 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman.

224. Anonymous. Double Capital, cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), middle of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

225. Anonymous. Holy Woman, 1125–1150. Pear tree wood with traces of paint, h: 133 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman.

226. Anonymous. Enthroned Virgin and Child, 1130–1140. Birch, paint and glass, h: 102.9 cm. The Cloisters, New York (United States). Roman.

227. Anonymous. Madonna with Child from Rarogne, c. 1150. Lime wood and paint, h: 90 cm. Musée national suisse, Zürich (Switzerland). Roman.

228. Anonymous. Enthroned Virgin and Child, 1150–1200. Walnut with gesso, paint, tin leaf and traces of linen, h: 68.6 cm. The Cloisters, New York (United States). Roman.

229. Anonymous. Madonna with Child, called Notre-Dame-la-Brune, Saint-Philibert Abbey Church, Tournus (France). Wood partially gilded and traces of polychromy, h: 73 cm. In situ. Roman.

230. Anonymous. Head of a Prophet, west facade, Saint-Denis Abbey Church, Saint-Denis (France) c. 1137–1140. Stone, h: 41 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman.

231. Anonymous. Head of an Old Testament Queen (Saba), west facade, Saint-Denis Abbey Church, Saint-Denis (France), c. 1137–1140. Limestone, h: 36.5 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman.

232. Anonymous. The Coronation of the Virgin, central portal of the northern transept, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres (France), c. 1145–1155. In situ. Gothic.

233. Anonymous. Royal Gate, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres (France), c. 1145–1155. In situ. Gothic.

The central portal of the west facade at Chartres Cathedral demonstrates the changes in sculpture that mark the transition from the Romanesque to the Early Gothic period. While Romanesque sculpted portals featured an intimidating figure of Christ in Majesty, presiding over the Last Judgment, Early Gothic portals showed a gentler Christ. Here, Christ is shown in majesty, but he is a more human figure, with a softer, more rounded body. The composition is simpler, focused on Christ. The symbols of the four Evangelists fill the rest of the space. The result is a simple image that induces contemplation, as opposed to the elaborate narratives and complex renderings of souls in torment seen on the earlier portals.

234. Anonymous. Tympanon, Sainte-Anne portal, west facade, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris (France), before 1148. In situ. Gothic.

235. Anonymous. Three Kings and One Queen of the Old Testament, jamb figures, right side wall of the west portal called “Royal Gate”, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres (France), c. 1145–1155. In situ. Gothic.

These still, columnar figures are ranged on either side of each of the three doors of the “Royal Gate” of Chartres Cathedral, as if forming a receiving line, welcoming those who enter the sanctuary. While their elongated proportions and stylised drapery tie them to the sculpture of the Romanesque period (see no. 213), their placement is new. The two churches that revolutionised the Gothic style, Saint-Denis and Chartres, both employed sculpted figures on the columns of the door jambs. These figures do not replace the columns, as did the caryatids of the classical world (see no. 71); instead, they are affixed to the front of the column. Each figure is a king or queen of the Old Testament, and together they give the entryway the name “The Royal Portal”.

These gentle-looking kings and queens symbolise the base that was the Old Testament, on which Christ and the events of the New Testament would rest.

236. Anonymous. The Descent from the Cross, corner pillar of the cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), middle of the 12th century.In situ. Roman.

237. Anonymous. Entombment, corner pillar of the cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), middle of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

238. Anonymous. Christ and the Pilgrims of Emmaus, corner pillar of the cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), middle of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

239. Anonymous. Doubting Thomas, corner pillar of the cloister, Santo Domingo Monastery, Silos (Spain), middle of the 12th century. In situ. Roman.

240. Anonymous. Crucifix, c. 1150–1200. Christ: white oak and pine with polychromy, gilding and applied stones; cross: red pine, polychromy, 259 × 207.6 cm. The Cloisters, New York (United States). Gothic.

241. Anonymous. Christ in Majesty on the Cross called Batlló Majesty, La Garrotxa (Spain), second half of the 12th century. Woodcarving with polychromy in tempera, Christ: 94 × 96 × 17 cm; cross: 156 × 120 × 4 cm. Gift of Enric Batlló, Museo Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona (Spain). Roman.

242. Anonymous. Crucifixion, second half of the 12th century. Wood with traces of paint, h: 181 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman.