Читать книгу Smart Solar PV Inverters with Advanced Grid Support Functionalities - Rajiv K. Varma - Страница 4
List of Illustrations
Оглавление1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 A simple power system with an inductor connected at PCC.Figure 1.2 Phasor diagrams for network with inductive load; (a) network with...Figure 1.3 A simple power system with a capacitor connected at PCC.Figure 1.4 Phasor diagrams for network with capacitive load; (a) network wit...Figure 1.5 A simple power system with a PV solar system connected at PCC.Figure 1.6 Phasor diagrams for network with active power injection from the ...Figure 1.7 Sequential frequency controls after a sudden loss of generation a...Figure 1.8 Simultaneous contributions of inertial response, primary frequenc...Figure 1.9 Voltage rise due to active power injected by solar PV based DER i...Figure 1.10 A realistic distribution feeder in Ontario.Figure 1.11 PCC bus voltages for various solar farm output cases with increa...Figure 1.12 TOV in PCC phase voltages for fault at load end.Figure 1.13 California ISO (CAISO) Duck Chart.Figure 1.14 (a, b) Network resonant frequency not coincident with harmonic f...Figure 1.15 System equivalent inertia at different PV penetration levels....Figure 1.16 WECC frequency response under high PV penetration scenarios: (a)...Figure 1.17 Typical behavior of power systems with different levels of store...Figure 1.18 Single‐line diagram of the study system near the participating g...Figure 1.19 Speed of generator 2103 after a three‐phase fault at bus 2104....
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 P–Q capability curve of a distributed energy resource.Figure 2.2 Reactive power capability of a typical synchronous generator comp...Figure 2.3 Depiction of different interconnecting buses.Figure 2.4 Minimum reactive power capability of Category B DERs.Figure 2.5 Constant power factor function.Figure 2.6 Volt–var curve of a DER.Figure 2.7 Default volt–var settings for different international standards....Figure 2.8 Typical watt–var characteristic.Figure 2.9 Dynamic reactive current injection.Figure 2.10 Dynamic reactive current support function.Figure 2.11 Volt–watt characteristic for DER (a) without energy storage; (b)...Figure 2.12 International default volt–watt settings normalized to ANSI volt...Figure 2.13 Combined operation of volt–var mode and volt–watt mode of operat...Figure 2.14 Dynamic volt–watt function.Figure 2.15 DER response to abnormal voltages and voltage ride‐through requi...Figure 2.16 DER response to abnormal voltages and voltage ride‐through requi...Figure 2.17 Voltage ride‐through time duration curve from NERC. *The area ou...Figure 2.18 Frequency watt function 1.Figure 2.19 Frequency watt function 2.Figure 2.20 Frequency‐droop function curves.Figure 2.21 Frequency watt function with battery energy storage.Figure 2.22 DER default response to abnormal frequencies and frequency ride‐...Figure 2.23 Off nominal frequency capability curve from NERC (a) Eastern int...Figure 2.24 Charging function of the ESS‐based DER.Figure 2.25 State of charge (SOC)‐based model of ESS.
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 A smart inverter system connected to the power system.Figure 3.2 Active and reactive power flow from the smart inverter system tow...Figure 3.3 Reactive power injection by the smart inverter system.Figure 3.4 Reactive power absorption by the smart inverter system.Figure 3.5 Control system of a smart PV inverter system.Figure 3.6 Typical I–V characteristic of a PV module at (a) different ...Figure 3.7 Variation of power output from a PV solar panel.Figure 3.8 A two‐level Voltage Source Converter.Figure 3.9 AC filter.Figure 3.10 Phasor diagram of space phasor in abc and dq reference frames....Figure 3.11 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation. (a) Modulating signal and car...Figure 3.12 Phasor diagram prior to synchronization by PLL.Figure 3.13 Phasor diagram after synchronization by PLL.Figure 3.14 Block diagram of a Phase Locked Loop.Figure 3.15 Block diagram of the current controller.Figure 3.16 Block diagram of DC‐link voltage controller.Figure 3.17 Implementation of volt–var smart inverter function.Figure 3.18 Block diagram of PCC voltage controller.Figure 3.19 Typical topology of a solar PV plant.
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Single machine connected to infinite bus.Figure 4.2 Comparison of different power flow limits in a transmission line....Figure 4.3 A TSC–TCR based SVC.Figure 4.4 Typical control system of SVC.Figure 4.5 Synchronous condenser.Figure 4.6 Variation of synchronous condenser armature current with change i...Figure 4.7 STATCOM with DC capacitor (no energy storage). (a) power circuit,...Figure 4.8 Typical Voltage versus Current characteristics of a) STATCOM and ...Figure 4.9 Typical control system of a STATCOM.Figure 4.10 (a) Typical low voltage ride‐through characteristic; (b) typical...Figure 4.11 Voltage profile across a long transmission line.Figure 4.12 Voltage profile across a long transmission line with dynamic rea...Figure 4.13 Single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system with a mid‐line connec...Figure 4.14 (a) A basic PV solar system, (b) A basic STATCOM, and (c) A basi...Figure 4.15 PV‐STATCOM capability of PV inverter in active power priority mo...Figure 4.16 PV‐STATCOM operation in reactive power priority mode. Active pow...Figure 4.17 PV‐STATCOM operation in reactive power priority mode: Active pow...Figure 4.18 Combined modulation of active and reactive power after partial c...Figure 4.19 Simultaneous modulation of active power and reactive power with ...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Single‐line diagram of the distributed generation study system....Figure 5.2 Solar farm as STATCOM – controller diagram. (a) synchronization, ...Figure 5.3 Solar farm as STATCOM – PCC voltage regulation. (a) PCC voltage p...Figure 5.4 Solar farm as STATCOM – transient performance during 3LG fault. (...Figure 5.5 Single‐line diagram of a realistic feeder in Ontario.Figure 5.6 PV‐STATCOM control system.Figure 5.7 Variation in PCC voltage with increasing wind power during nightt...Figure 5.8 Variation in PCC voltage with increasing wind power during daytim...Figure 5.9 Transient overvoltage at load end during nighttime condition (a) ...Figure 5.10 Relation between distance of wind farm from PV‐STATCOM and react...Figure 5.11 Overall increase in wind farm penetration.Figure 5.12 Modeling of the study system and PV‐STATCOM controller component...Figure 5.13 Flowchart of the PV‐STATCOM operating modes.Figure 5.14 Simulation results for Full STATCOM mode with voltage control du...Figure 5.15 Simulation results for Full STATCOM mode with voltage control du...Figure 5.16 Simulation results for LVRT test with smart PV system during day...Figure 5.17 Single‐line diagram of the study system.Figure 5.18 Modeling of the study system and control components.Figure 5.19 Flowchart of the smart PV inverter PV‐STATCOM operating modes....Figure 5.20 Structure of TOV detection block.Figure 5.21 Performance of three conventional PV systems during small load a...Figure 5.22 Performance of the third 10 MW PV system as PV‐STATCOM, together...Figure 5.23 Performance of one PV system with proposed smart inverter contro...Figure 5.24 PV‐STATCOM control for line loss minimization (a) optimal power ...Figure 5.25 One line diagram of (a) Scenario 1 and (b) Scenario 2.Figure 5.26 PV power generation profile and available reactive power capacit...Figure 5.27 Modified one line diagram of IEEE 33 Bus system with PV solar fa...Figure 5.28 Load profile for typical day as created from IESO data.Figure 5.29 (a) Active power loss without PV systems, with PV systems and wi...Figure 5.30 Voltage profile without PV system, with conventional PV system o...Figure 5.31 Single‐line diagram of the Study System 1.Figure 5.32 A PV system connected to Study System 2 with the proposed PV‐STA...Figure 5.33 (a) Active power output (P) and reactive power capability (Q) of...Figure 5.34 Response of induction motor with and without PV‐STATCOM control....Figure 5.35 Performance comparison of remotely located PV‐STATCOM and locall...Figure 5.36 PV solar system operating at unity power factor (without PV‐STAT...Figure 5.37 Response of PV operating according to German grid code. (a) Moto...Figure 5.38 Motor stabilization by PV‐STATCOM operation at night. (a) Motor ...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Single line diagram of (a) study system I with single solar farm ...Figure 6.2 Overall DG (solar/wind) system model with damping controller and ...Figure 6.3 (a) Maximum nighttime power transfer (850 MW) from generator with...Figure 6.4 (a) Maximum nighttime power transfer (899 MW) from generator with...Figure 6.5 Maximum daytime power transfer (719 MW) from generator with solar...Figure 6.6 Maximum daytime power transfer (861 MW) from generator with solar...Figure 6.7 Maximum nighttime power transfer from generator with both DGs usi...Figure 6.8 Maximum daytime power transfer from generator while both DGs gene...Figure 6.9 Single‐line diagram of two‐area system with 100 MW PV plant conne...Figure 6.10 PV‐STATCOM controller.Figure 6.11 Flowchart of the operation of oscillation detection unit.Figure 6.12 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM POD controller.Figure 6.13 Midline and PV active power in two‐area system (230 and 430 MW p...Figure 6.14 (a) Midline and PV active power, (b) PV reactive power, (c) midl...Figure 6.15 (a) Midline and PV active power, (b) PV reactive power, (c) Midl...Figure 6.16 Nighttime (a) Midline active power without POD with PV‐STATCOM c...Figure 6.17 Effect of PV‐STATCOM control on system frequency in two‐area pow...Figure 6.18 Single‐line diagram of two‐area power system with PV‐STATCOM con...Figure 6.19 Detailed nonlinear and small‐signal model of PV‐STATCOM control....Figure 6.20 Flowchart of PV‐STATCOM operation mode selection.Figure 6.21 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM Q‐POD controller.Figure 6.22 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM P‐POD controller.Figure 6.23 Maximum power transfer capability of the two‐area power system....Figure 6.24 Midline active power; and PV‐STATCOM active power, reactive powe...Figure 6.25 Power system frequency for No POD, Q‐POD, P‐POD, and PQ‐POD cont...Figure 6.26 Study system involving a PV solar farm connected at the synchron...Figure 6.27 Damping controller configuration.Figure 6.28 (a) DC voltage controller, (b) flowchart of DC voltage controlle...Figure 6.29 System response for Mode 1 SSR without PV‐STATCOM controller....Figure 6.30 PV‐STATCOM response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SSR.Figure 6.31 Synchronous generator response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SS...Figure 6.32 Transmission system response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SSR....Figure 6.33 System response for Mode 1 SSR without damping controller during...Figure 6.34 System response for damping of Critical Mode 4 SSR.Figure 6.35 Study system: (a) modified IEEE First SSR Benchmark System with ...Figure 6.36 Windfarm response, without and with PV‐STATCOM controller, PWF =...Figure 6.37 System response with PV‐STATCOM controller, PWF = 500 MW, PV sys...Figure 6.38 System response without and with PV‐STATCOM controller, PWF = 50...Figure 6.39 System response without and with PV‐STATCOM controller, nighttim...Figure 6.40 Single line diagram of the study system.Figure 6.41 Single line diagram of a large PV plant with the proposed PV‐STA...Figure 6.42 (a) Typical active “P” and reactive power “Q” exchange capabilit...Figure 6.43 Response of IMs with PV plant without any control. (a) PCC volta...Figure 6.44 Response of the large PV plant with proposed PV‐STATCOM control....Figure 6.45 Comparison of PV‐STATCOM and other smart inverter controls. (a) ...Figure 6.46 Performance comparison of PV‐STATCOM and actual STATCOM. (a) PCC...Figure 6.47 Impact on system frequency.Figure 6.48 Performance of PV‐STATCOM at night. (a) PCC voltage (RMS), (b) 2...Figure 6.49 Two‐area four‐machine study system.Figure 6.50 Modified WECC generic dynamic model of PV power plant.Figure 6.51 Simultaneous FFR and POD control scheme in a PV‐STATCOM plant co...Figure 6.52 Simultaneous modulation of active power and reactive power with ...Figure 6.53 25 MW load rejection in area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 0):...Figure 6.54 200 MW load rejection in area 1 (Pavailable = 60 MW, Kcurt = 0):...Figure 6.55 25 MW load increase in area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 50%)...Figure 6.56 100 MW load increase in area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 50%...Figure 6.57 100 MW load increase in area 2, PV plant output curtailed by 50%...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Hosting capacity of a distribution feeder. (a) PV systems operati...Figure 7.2 Additional energy storage needed to achieve a marginal PV net LCO...Figure 7.3 Study system.Figure 7.4 Additional PV hosting capacity using APC.Figure 7.5 Additional PV hosting capacity using different module orientation...Figure 7.6 PV hosting capacity of the 10 node test feeder in accordance with...Figure 7.7 Additional PV hosting capacity using DSM.Figure 7.8 Additional PV hosting capacity using distributed storage systems....Figure 7.9 PV hosting capacity (absolute and additional) using RPC.Figure 7.10 Voltage comparison with different PV inverter controls.Figure 7.11 Key characteristics of 17 test feeders: voltage class, maximum l...Figure 7.12 PV hosting capacity results of 17 test feeders.Figure 7.13 Correlation between PV hosting capacity and feeder characteristi...Figure 7.14 Volt‐var function; V1 = 0.95 pu, Q1 = 100%, V2 = 1.05 pu, Q2 = 1...Figure 7.15 PV hosting capacity results of 17 test feeders after applying va...Figure 7.16 Voltage responses obtained with different volt–var settings.Figure 7.17 Methodology for determining optimal smart inverter controller pa...Figure 7.18 Volt–var control curves with deadband.Figure 7.19 Consideration of voltage constraint during optimization of perfo...Figure 7.20 Study distribution system.Figure 7.21 Aggregate solar and customer load profile over a day.Figure 7.22 Voltage profile over the day for the three study cases.Figure 7.23 Combined volt–var and volt–watt smart inverter functions.Figure 7.24 Volt–var control curves: (a) with deadband and (b) without deadb...Figure 7.25 Feeder voltage profile as a function of distance for 1 March 201...Figure 7.26 Normalized power losses with respect to feeder without SI in fee...Figure 7.27 Case study feeder with the location of new PV (triangle) and tec...Figure 7.28 Visual representation of international default settings of volt–...Figure 7.29 Visual representation of international settings of volt–var func...Figure 7.30 Analysis of volt–watt settings (a) voltage and (b) active power....Figure 7.31 Analysis of volt–var settings (a) voltage, (b) reactive power, a...Figure 7.32 Analysis of watt–PF settings (a) voltage, (b) reactive power, an...Figure 7.33 Analysis of fixed power factor settings.Figure 7.34 Baseline hosting capacity analysis process applied separately fo...Figure 7.35 Comparison of watt and var priority for a specific setting on a ...Figure 7.36 Volt–var with var priority curves that achieved a 25% increase i...Figure 7.37 Distribution circuit of Porterville, CA [47].Figure 7.38 PV system POI voltage and reactive power exchange on 23 November...Figure 7.39 Start of the circuit current magnitude in Phase A and reactive p...Figure 7.40 Daily behavior of smart PV inverter with Q (V) and P (V) functio...Figure 7.41 Demonstration of volt–var control on a 1.1 MW PV system on a sun...Figure 7.42 Demonstration of volt–var control on a 1.1 MW PV system on a clo...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 MV grid based on the CIGRE MV benchmark grid. (a) results of the ...Figure 8.2 Voltage variations dV caused by all PV systems. (a) at node T1, (...Figure 8.3 Study feeder system.Figure 8.4 Different volt–var curves considered for smart PV inverters.Figure 8.5 LTC tap operations during a clear day (left) and variable day (ri...Figure 8.6 Control scheme of power factor and output power of smart inverter...Figure 8.7 Profiles of active power generation and bus voltage of test PV fa...Figure 8.8 Profiles of active power generation, reactive power compensation,...Figure 8.9 SVC interaction analysis network.Figure 8.10 A proposed Hydro‐Quebec summertime study system with shunt compe...Figure 8.11 SVC transient behavior in La Verendrye system due to “snapshot” ...Figure 8.12 The effect of the SVC response rate on system eigenvalues in La ...Figure 8.13 (a) Simplified grid‐connected model of the smart PV inverter, (b...Figure 8.14 Single smart inverter connected to a simple network.Figure 8.15 Distribution line with two smart PV inverters.Figure 8.16 Normal operation of two PV inverters with volt–var control. (a) ...Figure 8.17 Control interaction between two smart inverters with different v...Figure 8.18 Voltage control through volt–var function.Figure 8.19 (a) Volt–var function for base case, (b) volt–var function for c...Figure 8.20 Voltage response of both inverters with KP = 0.3 and KI = 3.0, v...Figure 8.21 Voltage response of both inverters with slope of volt–var curve ...Figure 8.22 Different volt–var characteristics implemented on PV systems....Figure 8.23 Bus voltage and reactive power output of a PV system, without va...Figure 8.24 Bus voltage and reactive power output of the PV system, with var...Figure 8.25 Study system for smart PV inverter controller interactions.Figure 8.26 Control system of the smart PV inverters.Figure 8.27 DER inverter connected to infinite bus.Figure 8.28 Volt–var function (a) and volt–watt function (b) operative in th...Figure 8.29 Time‐domain response of voltage Ek at the point of connection of...Figure 8.30 Single line diagram of study system.Figure 8.31 Block diagram of the volt–var control in the PV plant connected ...Figure 8.32 Typical volt–var curve of a smart inverter.Figure 8.33 Structure of a volt–var controller.Figure 8.34 Variation of dominant poles in (σ + jω) plane, for var...Figure 8.35 Variation of dominant poles in (σ + jω) plane, for var...Figure 8.36 Reactive power output (Q) of both PV plants for delays of: (a) 0...Figure 8.37 Reactive power output (Q) of both PV plants for response time of...Figure 8.38 Study system: DFIG‐based wind farm and solar PV farm connected t...Figure 8.39 Subsynchronous damping controller (SSDC) of DFIG converter.Figure 8.40 Control system of PV‐STATCOM.Figure 8.41 System response without subsynchronous damping controllers. (a) ...Figure 8.42 Performance of uncoordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCOM and DFIG: (a) l...Figure 8.43 DFIG and PV system responses with coordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCO...Figure 8.44 Performance of coordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCOM and DFIG: (a) lin...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Low voltage feeder network in Danish island.Figure 9.2 Smart inverter functions implemented on the PV inverters.Figure 9.3 Real power that can be injected by PV systems without violating o...Figure 9.4 The ESS need for overvoltage prevention in the conditions of 50%,...Figure 9.5 Test feeder with PV‐storage integrated systems in Australia.Figure 9.6 (a) Voltage fluctuation at household HH28 with and without the pr...Figure 9.7 Study system.Figure 9.8 Reactive power control capability of PV inverters.Figure 9.9 Active power output and reactive power capability of a solar PV f...Figure 9.10 Active power output and reactive power capability of a BESS for ...Figure 9.11 Active power output and reactive power capability of an EV for a...Figure 9.12 Active power output and reactive power capability of combination...Figure 9.13 FFR test during high PV power production with 10% curtailment....Figure 9.14 Morning AGC test results.Figure 9.15 Midday AGC test results.Figure 9.16 Droop response of PV plant during an underfrequency event.Figure 9.17 Droop response of PV plant during an over frequency event.Figure 9.18 Power factor control tests in both leading and lagging mode.Figure 9.19 Reactive power control test results.Figure 9.20 Reactive power production test at no active power (P ≈ 0 MW)....Figure 9.21 Schematic diagram of the study system at Bluewater Power Distrib...Figure 9.22 (a) Field implementation of PV‐STATCOM at Bluewater Power Distri...Figure 9.23 Response of the conventional PV inverter for large load switchin...Figure 9.24 Response of the PV‐STATCOM for large load switching during dayti...Figure 9.25 Response of the conventional PV inverter for large load switchin...Figure 9.26 Response of the PV‐STATCOM for large load switching during night...
