Читать книгу Shodo - Shozo Sato - Страница 9

CHAPTER 1

THE ART OF KANJI

The main difference between shodo (Japanese calligraphy) and Chinese calligraphy is that shodo employs three ways of writing characters—using kanji (ideograms) and hiragana and katakana (phonetic systems)—whereas Chinese calligraphy has basically retained a single method, termed kanji in Japanese, which is still used in China today. Moreover, the goal of Japanese calligraphy is not uniformity but the expression of individuality, an amalgam of the skill and imagination of the creator who has studied the combinations available made up of only lines or strokes.

Although written Japanese today may combine kanji, hiragana and katakana in a single sentence, within the kanji style there are several sub-styles that reflect differences in formality and purpose. .

As you will see, the kaisho style of writing an ideogram requires an architectural knowledge of the formation of the ideogram. The gyosho and sosho styles also require a sense of rhythm. But regardless of the calligraphic style used by the writer or the beauty and uniqueness of his or her creation, if an ideogram or series of ideograms cannot be read they no longer belong to the art of sho. This is because each ideogram has already been abstracted in the process of forming kanji. In shodo, the aim is to artistically elevate the kanji yet maintain the original meaning. To be able to do this, the shodo practitioner must be aware of the quality of each and every line, including those that might be accidentally created and yet are inherently exquisite. Strong lines instead of weak ones, bright lines instead of dark ones, clear lines instead of muddy ones, deep lines instead of shallow ones— all are prerequisites in shodo. One must also be aware that lines have a sense of rhythm as well as a sense of solidity or weight. Within the given space of white paper, the ideogram contains a three-dimensional massiveness that expands into untouched white space. At the same time, the practitioner must be able to exhibit a personalized technique that is both skillful and ingenious while expressing the meaning of an ideogram. The creative process in shodo, as in many other arts, is in many ways a “spiritual purification” of the creator.

What Is Kanji?

The Japanese term kanji derives from the ideogram for han, meaning “word from China.” This refers to the Han dynasty of China (207 BCE–220 CE).

Kanji was brought to Japan from China and Korea during the sixth century. The Japanese had already developed a spoken language by that time; therefore, for the sake of convenience, these newly-arrived ideograms were given two different pronunciations: the original sound from its Chinese use, and the Japanese way of pronouncing that same vocabulary item’s meaning. A major distinction between the kanji writing system and an alphabet-based writing system is that a single ideogram of kanji is a “word” carrying a specific meaning.

Two additional systems which are purely Japanese were developed from kanji: hiragana and katakana. These are phonetic systems, and are used like the English alphabet, in that each symbol in and of itself has no meaning. In the Japanese writing system, kanji, hiragana and katakana are combined to write sentences.

While both of the forms can be traced back to the original kanji, hiragana was developed from the sosho (cursive) style of writing, to become a graceful, flowing, semi-formal writing style known as the “grass” style. The graceful hiragana was commonly called the “women’s style” of writing.

Katakana, in contrast, was developed from what is known as the kaisho style, and reflected one simple portion copied from a kanji ideogram. Therefore the katakana symbols are more square in shape.

During the Heian period in Japan (794–1185 CE), all official documents by government officials, Buddhist priests, and in fact by all males, were written in the “square” kaisho style of writing. Moreover, only Chinese ideograms and compositional styles were used.

This separation of writing systems into male and female styles is unusual in the history of a written language. Until the latter part of the Muromachi period (1333–1573 CE), a combination of kanji and katakana was used to write in Japanese. But today katakana is reserved solely for writing foreign words.

Ro or Tsuyu (meaning “Dew” or “Dewdrop,” “Vain” or “Ephemeral” ) in the sosho style.

Korea, too, used kanji for writing but in 1443 the Korean king Sejong simplified the writing system in order to increase literacy in his country. He developed a system of writing based on the sounds of the Korean language, with symbols reflecting how the tongue, lips, and throat were positioned for each sound. Hangul is today a phonetic system of 24 main symbols; and while Chinese characters are still used in Korean academia, the general public writes and reads using hangul.

Until printing technology became easily available in Japan, katsujitai, or the woodblock method of printing, was the norm. A faithful version of each ideogram was hand-carved in reverse on a block and then hand-printed, so that the printed form of a kanji matched the handwritten form. In contemporary times, kanji have been specially designed (kanji were modified as necessary) so that every character is sized to fit a standard, uniform amount of space, and thus even if the characters are printed very small, texts remain easy to read. Many young people in Japan are so accustomed to reading printed materials in this style that their handwriting replicates this form. But this uniformly-spaced style should most certainly be avoided in the art of shodo.

The Cultural Revolution in China (1966–76) brought about new changes in writing. The traditional ideograms using many strokes to create one word were simplified by eliminating certain lines, and thus a new style of kanji was developed and continues to be used in Mainland China. During this same period in Japan, kanji was also simplified by eliminating strokes in certain ideograms. Today, the traditional way of writing Chinese ideograms is found only in Taiwan and certain other Asian countries. However, for the artist of shodo—whether in China, Japan or Korea—the traditional style of kanji is still used.

The top ideogram, Ben, means “convenience” or “service” but also means “excrement.” The lower ideogram, Korosu or Satsu, carries the meanings “kill,” “slaughter” or “restrain.” Both are in the gyosho style.

Writing Styles

There are five basic styles commonly used in Japan today for writing kanji. They are tensho (seal style), rei sho (scribe’s style), kaisho (block style), gyosho (semi-cursive style) and sosho (cursive style), which all appeared in China before the end of the fourth century. In addition to the Chinese ideograms, the Japanese, in the 8^th century, developed hiragana and katakana where one small portion of an ideogram was taken to represent a phonetic sound more suitable for the spoken language of Japan.

REISHO 隷書

Reisho is sometimes referred to as the “clerical script” or “scribe’s style.” The Chinese Emperor Shin Huang Ti of the Tsin dynasty (221 BCE) ordered the consolidation all of the existing styles of ideograms into a standard reisho form based on pictures in order to make writing more accessible to the masses. This style, which is highly linear, was considerably influenced by the tensho style or “seal script,” a formal calligraphic style created a generation earlier for carving ideograms on stone tablets or monuments as well as on ornamental stamps or seals for signifying ownership. Although the strong decorative aspects of tensho were adapted for reisho, they were considerably simplified, with fewer strokes and in a slightly more cursive style. The reisho style is thus both decorative and easy to read, even for the average person.

Although traditional or classic reisho had less ornamentation and was much simpler, some embellishments were eventually applied to it. The ideograms in reisho were also longer horizontally. Unique to reisho is that when making the horizontal line, the beginning of the line is rounded, but the end of the line goes up like the bow of a ship. Today, however, the sho artist will write reisho with much more freedom than in the past, injecting his own personality.

Using the brush in a particular way for the beginning and ending of each line is a unique aspect of reisho. Example (a) at left of the ideogram ichi, meaning “one,” comprises a horizontal line. The brush is held perpendicular to the paper. As it is pressed down, it is pushed to the left to make the circular head; it is then moved to the right; after pressure is applied, the brush is lifted upward to create a taper.

Reisho continues to be used today, especially in shodo exhibitions featuring Chinese poetry, and is popular for company and product names because of its relative simplicity and legibility. The reisho style is also commonly employed by carvers of stone seals, especially official seals, which often function as official signatures in Asia.

The example (b) at left shows the ideogram for “dream” in the reisho style. In the grouping at left (c), the ideogram at the top is an early version of mu (“nothingness”) in a classic Chin dynasty (221–206 BCE) reisho style. The ideogram in the middle is the same ideogram written in a contemporary style with embellishments. The ideograms in the last line—“guest,” “elderly lady” and “crow”—come from Chinese poetry of the Chin dynasty and have much more ornamentation.

The ideogram for “dream” in the reisho style.

KAISHO 楷書

Kaisho literally means “correct writing.” It is a simplified form of reisho and is the form used in both China and Japan for everyday writing. Often called the “block script,” kaisho is the easiest style to read because of its precise nature. This derives from the fact that the form and number of strokes are placed in a prescribed place and sequence within a fixed area. The ideogram for kaisho itself (see the heading above) can also be interpreted to mean that each stroke has a “fixed” or “set” position. The left side of the first ideogram is a tree or wood; the right side means “everyone” or “all.”

Writing in kaisho is similar to walking up a staircase one step at a time. The order in which the lines are to be placed must be strictly followed line by line. In copybooks, the ideogram strokes are numbered and the strokes must be followed in the correct order. For this reason, students often begin with the kaisho form when first learning shodo; it gives them a chance to practice the sequence of strokes while becoming used to handling the brush. Indeed, kaisho was developed after brushes made with animal hairs became commonly available.

All printed materials, such as newspapers, magazines and books, are printed in the kaisho style. A newly designed printing block system called katsujitai has been devised so that even small print can be easily read. In this style, each ideogram is made to fit a uniformly sized square block. Some ideograms have been adjusted to fit the block size.

Despite the overall uniformity of the kaisho writing style, slight variations do occur depending on the strength of the brush stroke, and this is permissible. Much depends on individual taste and choice. Although such terminology as “rigid and formal kaisho,” semiformal kaisho” and “informal kaisho” is not part of the curriculum in a sho classroom, a “casual” or “relaxed” style is sometimes referred to.

In the traditional line for the kaisho ideogram ichi, meaning “one,” shown above, the brush is pressed down; slight pressure is applied before it is moved to the right; the amount of pressure is reduced “in transit”; at the end more pressure is again applied; then the elbow is turned slightly clockwise to create a knuckle effect.

This example shows the yin and yang balance within the one line. The beginning and end are both given the strength of yang while the lighter touch of the brush “in transit” reflects the reduced strength of yin.

In this contemporary example, there is no obvious visual effect at the beginning and end of the line although the brush stroke is slightly more natural from left to right and the feeling of strength within the line is maintained.

The ideogram for “dream” in the classic kaisho style.

The ideogram for “dream” in the gyosho style.

GYOSHO 行書

Gyosho is a semi-cursive style that literally means “traveling writing.” Indeed, the ideogram for gyo (b above) translates as “motion.” Writing in gyosho is faster than writing in kaisho, and because it is a less formal style the letters have a softer, more rounded appearance, with the individual strokes flowing together. When writing in the kaisho style, the brush movement stops at the end of each stroke. In contrast, in the gyosho style the intention is to make a smooth transition from one stroke to the next. The beginnings, endings and turning corners of the strokes are thus not given the same emphasis as in kaisho, and the ending of each stroke or line tapers to a fine wisp. In addition, the complex lines within the kaisho ideograms have been simplified or even reduced, which makes writing smoother and speedier. Yet the formation of the ideograms are very similar to kaisho and anyone who can read kaisho can also read gyosho. However, a very important prerequisite of the gyosho style of writing is that one must know the order of the strokes and the form of the ideogram in the kaisho style, otherwise the ideogram cannot be read. Of major importance in the art of shodo is that one must be able to read the ideogram. If not, regardless of how beautiful it is, it becomes mere abstract art.

Because gyosho provides a sense of speediness and flexibility in brush movement in comparison with kaisho, it allows for the creation of very personal styles in forming ideograms. A change in the order of strokes is acceptable, as is adjusting brush strokes to suit one’s own style, and for artistic creativity. This flexibility in gyosho allows the shodo artist the opportunity to produce remarkable works. For this reason also, most Japanese calligraphy is done in gyosho, including bokuseki writings by Zen priests.

The unique feature of the gyosho style is that the beginning and ending of a brush stroke must show the directional movement of the next stroke—where it came from and where it is going. In the example above of the ideogram for “one,” the brush movement is started from the left and moves to the right; then, at the point of completion, the brush is lifted, leaving a wisp to indicate where the next line will begin.

SOSHO 草書

Sosho is the least formal style for writing ideograms in Japanese and is like writing in cursive in the West. Brush strokes and movement flow in minimized style with each line reminiscent of the wind blowing grasses in a meadow, or flowing water moving plants in a stream. For this reason, sosho is often called “grass writing.” It more likely began as casual daily communication or notation, thus the personality of the writer was clearly evident. This aspect eventually led to this highly artistic and abstracted style of writing in contemporary times. The very great economy in brush movement provides a sho artist the opportunity to achieve full artistic expression to create many subtle nuances among the curving lines in an ideogram and to incorporate an important balance within the flow of line and active empty space. However, in order to work in the sosho style, it is necessary to first master the order of the strokes in both the kaisho and gyosho styles. Without a firm knowledge of these requirements, the purpose and effect of the highly simplified sosho lines will not be executed by the calligrapher, and the all-important visual improvisation in personal expression will not be successfully achieved.

Because sosho has become so personalized, the Japanese do not use it for everyday writing. In fact, sosho is so abstract that it can generally be read only by those trained in calligraphy who are able to appreciate its aesthetic qualities and free-flowing artistic style. During the Heian period (794–1185 CE) the phonetic system of hiragana was developed from the sosho style and was considered a woman’s writing style. Today, professional calligraphers and Zen priests often use the sosho style of writing Chinese ideograms. However, because the focus is on the quality of the visual line and because innovations and modifications can radically alter ideograms, the general public usually finds sosho calligraphy difficult to read.

The beauty of sosho lies in its fluid brush movements. As shown below in the ideogram for “one” (b), it is the essence of sosho to continue the flow of line from the previous movement, and leave a trace which leads to the next line. The continuous flow in line quality, which is begun with the tip of the brush without pressure, moves naturally to the right, with the ending wisp of the stroke leading to the next stroke.

The ideogram for shosho means “grass style” or “flowing in the direction of the wind in a meadow.”

Sei Fū Shū Chiku O Ugokasu (“Fresh Breeze Affects Serene Bamboo”) by Shinya Fujiwara of the Naniwa Shodo Kai

“T-SHIRT AND BLUE JEANS”

The kanji ideograms have had thousands of years to develop and change, and continue to flexibly reflect the artistry of each generation. The legacy offered by well-known calligraphers to their contemporaries shows their unique personalities pervading their work, impacting the kanji style, and reflecting the tenor of the time.

Shortly after World War II, during the 1950s, the Japanese traditional arts began to change, influenced by a contemporary movement which was world-wide. This trend permeated even the traditional world of shodo: the individual personality and style of calligraphers began to be more strongly reflected in their work. No longer do these works belong in the category of depicting ordinary ideograms or kanji but they become transformed into abstract paintings, where ideograms are no longer limited in size in relationship to each other. When the avant-garde becomes the fashion, it eventually becomes a recognized genre or form. However, often it is difficult to read such work because both the gyosho and sosho style of writing have become so personalized. The recent trend which has become very popular in Japan is a category which I personally have named the “T-shirt and Blue Jeans” style. One of the great benefits of this style is that it is easy to read because it is based upon a kaisho-like clarity, although it is in gyosho style. However, this “T-Shirt and Blue Jeans” style goes beyond the traditional concepts of rules and order and methods of brush movement, to a freer form. While the meaning of the ideogram is visually retained, the overall expression can also be aesthetically appreciated in a new way. Each individual can create a personal style, which is the great appeal of this movement.

On pages 135–138 the ichigyo mono “Fresh Breeze Affects Serene Bamboo” is discussed. This work by Shinya Fujiwara of the Naniwa Shodo Association captures, in “T-shirt and Blue Jeans” style, the essence of feeling the cool breeze.