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Оглавление1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The size of the heat source and its effect on welding.Figure 1.2 Heating of and hence damage to workpiece vs. power density of hea...Figure 1.3 Variation of weld strength with heat input per unit length of wel...Figure 1.4 Comparisons between welding processes: (a) angular distortion; (b...Figure 1.5 Five basic types of weld joint designs.Figure 1.6 Typical weld joint variations.Figure 1.7 Four welding positions.Figure 1.8 Oxyacetylene welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area enlar...Figure 1.9 Three types of flames in oxyacetylene welding [4].Figure 1.10 Chemical reactions and temperature distribution in a neutral oxy...Figure 1.11 Shielded metal arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding are...Figure 1.12 Gas–tungsten arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area ...Figure 1.13 Three different polarities in GTAW.Figure 1.14 Surface cleaning action in GTAW with DC electrode positive.Figure 1.15 Plasma arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area enlarg...Figure 1.16 Comparison between a gas–tungsten arc and a plasma arc [5].Figure 1.17 A plasma arc weld made in 13‐mm‐thick 304 stainless steel with k...Figure 1.18 Gas–metal arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area enl...Figure 1.19 Gas–metal arc welds in 6.4‐mm‐thick 5083 aluminum made with argo...Figure 1.20 Metal transfer during GMAW of steel with Ar–2% O2 shielding: (a)...Figure 1.21 Flux‐cored arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area en...Figure 1.22 Sensitivity of gaseous shield of molten metal to wind or draft....Figure 1.23 Submerged arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area enl...Figure 1.24 Electroslag welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area enlar...Figure 1.25 Transverse cross section of electroslag weld in 70‐mm‐thick stee...Figure 1.26 Electron beam welding: (a) process; (b) keyhole.Figure 1.27 Dispersion of electron beam at various ambient pressures [1]....Figure 1.28 Welds in 13‐mm‐thick 2219 aluminum: (a) electron beam weld; (b) ...Figure 1.29 Missed joints in electron beam welds in 150‐mm‐thick steels: (a)...Figure 1.30 Laser beam welding with solid‐state laser: (a) process; (b) ener...Figure 1.31 Keyhole laser‐beam welding: (a) process; (b) CO2‐laser weld in 1...Figure 1.32 Weld penetration in GMAW and laser‐assisted GMAW using CO2 laser...Figure 1.33 Resistance spot welding: (a) overview; (b) resistance to electri...Figure 1.34 Resistance spot welding of dissimilar metals with highly differe...Figure 1.35 Friction stir butt welding: (a) tool (b) photo of tool; (c) butt...Figure 1.36 Stir zone (dynamically recrystallized zone) and HAZ (thermally a...Figure 1.37 Friction stir lap or spot welding: (a) plunging rotating tool in...Figure 1.38 Schematic illustration of rotary friction welding: (a) first pie...Figure 1.39 Linear friction welding in which a stationary member is forced a...Figure 1.40 Schematic illustration of solid‐state joining by making one memb...Figure 1.41 Diffusion welding between an upper piece and a lower piece showi...Figure E1.1 GTAW process used to weld A 1100 Al sheet with a 1100 Al filler ...Figure E1.2 Hot wire GTAW process.Figure P1.8 Edge weld of thin‐gauge steel.Figure P1.9 Steel plates were joined together in a single pass.Figure P1.14 SAW butt welding of two horizontal pipes.
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Heat losses to the surroundings in GTAW. A portion of the nominal...Figure 2.2 Measurement of arc efficiency in GTAW: (a) calorimeter; (b) rise ...Figure 2.3 GTAW vs. PAW: (a) GTAW; (b) PAW. Cooling by orifice gas nozzle an...Figure 2.4 Arc efficiencies in GTAW and PAW.Figure 2.5 Arc efficiencies in GMAW and SAW.Figure 2.6 Calorimeter for measuring heat inputs in GMAW: (a) metal droplets...Figure 2.7 Power inputs during GMAW of aluminum: (a) measured results; (b) b...Figure 2.8 Heat source efficiencies in several welding processes.Figure 2.9 Melting efficiency: (a) transverse weld cross section; (b) lower ...Figure 2.10 Effect of electrode tip angle on shape and power density distrib...Figure 2.11 Effect of electrode tip angle on shape of gas–tungsten arc.Figure 2.12 Effect of electrode tip geometry on shape of gas–tungsten arc we...Figure 2.13 Measured power density distributions.Figure 2.14 HAZ thermal cycle: (a) top view of weld pool, fusion zone (solid...Figure 2.15 Coordinate system (x, y, z) moving with heat source.Figure 2.16 Two‐dimensional heat flow during welding of thin workpiece.Figure 2.17 Modified Bessel function of second kind and zero order.Figure 2.18 Three‐dimensional heat flow during welding of semi‐infinite work...Figure 2.19 Converting the calculated temperature distribution in Figure 2.1...Figure 2.20 Calculated Rosenthal's three‐dimensional heat flow in 1018 steel...Figure 2.21 Similar to Figure 2.20 but with faster welding speed of 6.2 mm/s...Figure 2.22 Weld pool shapes in GTAW of IN718 sheets.Figure 2.23 Sharp pool end in GTAW of 309 stainless steel revealed by ice qu...Figure 2.24 Computer simulation of GTAW of 3.2‐mm‐thick 6061 Al, 110 A, 10 V...Figure 2.25 Effect of power density distribution on weld shape in GTAW of 3....Figure 2.26 The thermal cycle at any location in a weld can be duplicated in...Figure E2.2 Transverse cross‐sections of welds.
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Gas‐tungsten welding arc: (a) sketch; (b) body‐fitted grid system...Figure 3.2 Arc produced by a tungsten electrode with a sharp tip: (a) Lorent...Figure 3.3 Current‐density field (left) and Lorentz force (right) in an arc ...Figure 3.4 Velocity and temperature fields in an arc produced by a tungsten ...Figure 3.5 Arc produced by a tungsten electrode with a flat end: (a) Lorentz...Figure 3.6 Current‐density field (left) and Lorentz force (right) in an arc ...Figure 3.7 Velocity and temperature fields in an arc produced by a tungsten ...Figure 3.8 Electrical conductivity of Ar and He and how they are affected by...Figure 3.9 304 stainless steel welded by stationary gas‐tungsten arc for 20 ...Figure 3.10 Computer simulation of gas‐tungsten arcs considering metal evapo...Figure 3.11 Calculated temperature and Al distributions in lap welding of Al...Figure 3.12 Comparison of measured weld cross‐section with those calculated ...Figure 3.13 Gas–tungsten welding arc: (a) power‐density distribution; (b) cu...Figure 3.14 Effect of arc length on gas‐tungsten welding arcs: (a) power‐den...Figure 3.15 Driving forces for weld pool convection: (a, b) buoyancy force; ...Figure 3.16 Effect of sulfur on surface tension and weld penetration: (a) su...Figure 3.17 Effect of sulfur on YAG laser welds: (a) 304 stainless steel wit...Figure 3.18 Liquid iron with various levels of sulfur: (a) surface tension; ...Figure 3.19 Welds in Wood's metal produced under the influence of: (a) buoya...Figure 3.20 Bead‐on‐plate weld of 304 stainless steel with 40 ppm sulfur mad...Figure 3.21 Visualization of Marangoni flow using laser light‐cut technique:...Figure 3.22 Verifying effect of surface‐active agent on Marangoni flow using...Figure 3.23 Computer modeling showing effect of dγ/dT on fluid flow in ...Figure 3.24 Computer modeling showing flow driven by Lorentz force: (a) curr...Figure 3.25 Computer modeling showing significant weld pool surface deformat...Figure 3.26 Weld pool shapes and isotherms in a 304 stainless steel with 50 ...Figure 3.27 Visualization of inward return flow below pool surface (Figure 3...Figure 3.28 Temperature measurement in NaNO3 pool during flow oscillation (F...Figure 3.29 Conduction‐mode laser spot welding (defocused laser beam, no key...Figure 3.30 Oscillation of a 8.5‐mm‐diameter pool surface in conduction‐mode...Figure 3.31 New theory explaining effect of sulfur shown in Fig. 3.29: (a) (...Figure 3.32 Transverse cross‐sections of 304 stainless steel welds: (a) 42 p...Figure 3.33 RSW and MA‐RSW: (a) RSW; (b) MA‐RSW; (c) magnetic field and Lore...Figure 3.34 Calculated results of RSW with induced magnetic field: (a) veloc...Figure 3.35 Resistance spot welds of DP980 steel: (a) (b) (c) thicknesses an...Figure E3.1 Distributions of surface tension on weld pool surfaces and flow ...Figure E3.2 Effect of SO2(g) in Ar shielding gas on weld shape.Figure P3.6 Paraffin sandwiched between two vertical pieces of glass. Top su...
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Asymmetric fusion zone in GTAW of between 304L (0.003 wt% S) and ...Figure 4.2 Comparison of (a) macrograph of weld stop region reported by Lien...Figure 4.3 Calculated distributions at top of weld pool surface in GTAW of 1...Figure 4.4 Calculated distributions of Fe in GTAW of 1018 steel to 304 stain...Figure 4.5 Vapor pressure of several metals as a function of temperature....Figure 4.6 Composition profile along axis of 5356 Al (~Al‐5Mg) filler wire a...Figure 4.7 Magnesium loss in a laser weld of an Al‐Mg alloy.Figure 4.8 Composition change in laser keyhole welding of 304 stainless stee...Figure 4.9 In‐flight (already detached droplet) explosion of 5183 Al (~Al‐4....Figure 4.10 More spatter in GMAW caused by Al filler wires with more (Zn+Mg)...Figure 4.11 7075 Al wire after conventional GMAW: (a) 119 mm/s (280 ipm) wir...Figure 4.12 5356 Al wire tip after conventional GMAW: (a) overview; (b) (c) ...Figure 4.13 Returning Marangoni flow carrying nucleated bubbles axially down...Figure 4.14 Boiling point calculated as a function of Mg content in binary A...Figure 4.15 Al‐Zn phase diagram.Figure 4.16 Thickness of diffusion layer between Al (left) and Zn (right): (...Figure 4.17 Growth of diffusion layer thickness with time.Figure 4.18 Al‐Mg phase diagram.Figure 4.19 Thickness of diffusion layer between Al (left) and Zn (right): (...Figure 4.20 Composition profiles across interface between Rene‐N4 and Rene‐N...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Oxygen and nitrogen levels in several arc welding processes.Figure 5.2 Free energy of formation of nitrides relevant to welding. The low...Figure 5.3 Free energy of formation of oxides relevant to welding. The lower...Figure 5.4 Preparation of specimens for tensile test (all weld metal) and Ch...Figure 5.5 All‐weld‐metal specimen for tensile testing: (a) location of spec...Figure 5.6 Specimen for Charpy impact testing: (a) location of V‐notch insid...Figure 5.7 Charpy specimens of steel welds after testing: (a) brittle fractu...Figure 5.8 Solubility of hydrogen in metals as a function of temperature sho...Figure 5.9 All‐weld‐metal tensile specimen machined from along and inside a ...Figure 5.10 Reducing hydrogen porosity in laser‐beam welds of 1420 Al‐Li all...Figure 5.11 Reducing hydrogen porosity by stirring weld pool: (a) magnetic f...Figure 5.12 Hydrogen content in gas–tungsten arc welds of 0.5Cr‐0.5Mo steel ...Figure 5.13 Effect of electrode baking temperature on weld metal diffusible ...Figure 5.14 Effect of shielding gases on weld metal hydrogen content: (a) GM...Figure 5.15 Effect of postweld heating on the weld metal hydrogen content of...Figure 5.16 A36 steel welds made by GMAW with solid‐wire electrode ER70S‐6: ...Figure 5.17 Solubility of N and H in Fe. Note that the big solubility drop o...Figure 5.18 Effect of nitrogen partial pressure in Ar–N2 shielding gas on ni...Figure 5.19 Iron nitride in a ferrite matrix.Figure 5.20 Effect of nitrogen on the room temperature mechanical properties...Figure 5.21 Effect of oxygen equivalence (OE) on ductility of titanium welds...Figure 5.22 Gas–tungsten arc welding of titanium with additional gas shieldi...Figure 5.23 Removal of mill scale from steel workpiece surface before weldin...Figure 5.24 Changes in toughness at low oxygen concentrations in steel weld ...Figure 5.25 Wormhole porosity in weld metal.Figure 5.26 Effect of oxygen content of steel welds on toughness.Figure 5.27 Effect of the oxygen content on the mechanical properties of mil...Figure 5.28 Free energy of formation of sulfides relevant to welding. The lo...Figure 5.29 Effect of flux additions to manganese silicate flux on extent of...Figure 5.30 Weld metal oxygen content in steel as a function of flux basicit...Figure 5.31 Weld metal oxygen content in steel as a function of flux basicit...Figure 5.32 Desulfurization of high‐strength, low‐alloy steel welds as a fun...Figure 5.33 Inclusion initiating fracture in high‐strength, low‐alloy steel....Figure 5.34 Relationship between the toughness at 20 °C and the oxygen conte...Figure 5.35 Charge transfer reactions for DCEP and DCEN polarities in submer...Figure 5.36 Charge transfer reactions for DCEP and DCEN polarities in shield...Figure 5.37 Oxygen contents of the welding wire, melted electrode tips, and ...Figure 5.38 Gain or loss of weld metal silicon due to reactions in weld pool...Figure 5.39 Loss of weld metal manganese due to reactions in weld pool for e...Figure 5.40 Oxygen contents in wire, droplets, and weld metal in submerged a...Figure E5.2 Gas porosity in 304 stainless steel: (a) weld A; (b) weld B.
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Thermally induced stresses: (a) during heating; (b) during coolin...Figure 6.2 Changes in temperature and stresses during welding.Figure 6.3 Typical distributions of residual stresses in butt weld: (a) long...Figure 6.4 Measured and calculated distributions of residual stress in butt ...Figure 6.5 Effect of temperature and time on stress relief of steel welds....Figure 6.6 Distortion in welded structures.Figure 6.7 Angular distortion in butt weld of 12.7 mm plates of 1100 Al (~co...Figure 6.8 Distortion in butt welds of 5083 Al (~Al‐4.5Mg) with thicknesses ...Figure 6.9 Effect of joint design on angular distortion: (a) single–V; (b) d...Figure 6.10 Methods for controlling weld distortion: (a) presetting; (b) pre...Figure 6.11 Presetting steel plates 19 mm thick to reduce angular distortion...Figure 6.12 Fatigue stress cycling (top) and formation of intrusions and ext...Figure 6.13 Extrusions and intrusions in Cu after 5000 cycles of cyclic load...Figure 6.14 Failed axle shaft of automobile: (a) fracture surface; (b) beach...Figure 6.15 SEM images of fracture surface of 6056 Al.Figure 6.16 Effect of alloy and material properties on fatigue of transverse...Figure 6.17 Effect of joint configurations on fatigue of 5083–O Al.Figure 6.18 Effect of reinforcement removal and saltwater environment on fat...Figure 6.19 Fatigue crack originating from weld toe of gas–metal arc weld of...Figure 6.20 Effect of undercutting on fatigue in electron beam welds of carb...Figure 6.21 Effect of stress relieving and shot peening on residual stresses...Figure 6.22 Stress raisers in butt and T‐welds and their corrections.Figure 6.23 Effect of weld reinforcement on fatigue life of transverse butt ...Figure E6.1 Transverse cross–sections of welds: (a) one weld; (b) a similar ...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Directional solidification of an alloy: (a) apparatus; (b) crucib...Figure 7.2 Binary phase diagrams between metal A and solute B near pure A: (...Figure 7.3 Four different cases of solute redistribution during unidirection...Figure 7.4 Mass balance for Case II solute redistribution. Composition prof...Figure 7.5 Concentration of solute (i.e. dopant Cd) as a function of fractio...Figure 7.6 Mass balance for Case III solute redistribution: (a) solute mass ...Figure 7.7 Constitutional supercooling theory: (a) solute‐rich layer ahead o...Figure 7.8 Effect of constitutional supercooling on solidification mode: (a)...Figure 7.9 Factors affecting extent of constitutional supercooling: (a) phas...Figure 7.10 Binary alloy of succinonitrile and coumarin 152 (solute, k = 0.0...Figure 7.11 Columnar dendrites in mushy zone of 304 stainless steel revealed...Figure 7.12 Equiaxed dendrites in mushy zone of 321 stainless steel revealed...Figure 7.13 Columnar dendrites along the inner wall of an air bubble trapped...Figure 7.14 Control volumes for solute redistribution applied to analysis of...Figure 7.15 Microsegregation across boundary between cells or dendrite arms ...Figure 7.16 Microsegregation across boundary between cells or dendrite arms ...Figure 7.17 Microsegregation across boundary between cells or dendrite arms ...Figure 7.18 Coarsening of secondary dendrite arms revealed by quenching duri...Figure 7.19 Columnar dendrites growing along the weld centerline of IN 718, ...Figure 7.20 Secondary dendrite arm spacing vs. local solidification time of ...Figure 7.21 Effect of cooling rate or solidification time on dendrite arm sp...Figure 7.22 Effect of temperature gradient G and growth rate R on the morpho...Figure 7.23 Solutal undercooling ΔT C and curvature undercooling ΔT R at tip o...Figure 7.24 Smaller tip radius (rt) and greater curvature undercooling (ΔT R)...Figure 7.25 Compositions of ternary alloys shown by: (a) Gibbs triangle; (b)...Figure 7.26 Solidification paths: (a) binary A‐B phase diagram showing ce as...Figure 7.27 Solidification paths of Mg‐4Al‐3Sr (dmnqe) and Mg‐6Al‐1.5Sr (bpq...Figure 7.28 Ternary ally Mg‐4Al‐3Sr: (a) solidification path; (b) cast micro...Figure 7.29 Ternary ally Mg‐6Al‐1.5Sr: (a) solidification path; (b) cast mic...Figure 7.30 3‐dimentional ternary Fe‐Cr‐Ni phase diagram, calculated using t...Figure 7.31 Calculated liquidus projection of Fe‐Cr‐Ni ternary phase diagram...Figure 7.32 Calculated solidus projection of Fe‐Cr‐Ni ternary phase diagram....Figure 7.33 Calculated (L + δ + γ) three‐phase equilibrium in the Fe–Cr–Ni t...Figure 7.34 Calculated vertical cross‐sections of Fe‐Cr‐Ni ternary phase dia...Figure 7.35 Calculated vertical cross‐sections of Fe‐Cr‐Ni phase diagrams at...Figure 7.36 Solidification path of Fe‐25Cr‐20.5Ni alloy (which is close to 3...Figure 7.37 Solidification path of Fe‐23Cr‐14Ni alloy (which is close to 309...Figure 7.38 Solidification path of Fe‐18Cr‐8Ni alloy (which is close to 304 ...Figure 7.39 Solidification of 310 stainless steel: (a) schematic vertical se...Figure 7.40 Solidification of 309 stainless steel: (a) schematic vertical se...Figure 7.41 Microstructure of 309 stainless steel: (a) no quenching; (b) wat...Figure E7.1 Binary phase diagrams: (a) Al‐Mg; (b) Al‐Cu.Figure E7.2 Liquidus projection of the Fe‐Cr‐Ni ternary phase diagram.Figure P7.3Mg‐4Al‐1.5Sr alloys: (a) solidification path () shown on the liquidus...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Effect of constitutional supercooling on solidification mode duri...Figure 8.2 Relationship between growth rate R and travel speed V.Figure 8.3 Variation in growth rate along pool boundary.Figure 8.4 Variations in temperature gradient G and growth rate R along pool...Figure 8.5 Variation in solidification mode across the fusion zone.Figure 8.6 Planar‐to‐cellular transition in an autogenous weld of Fe‐49Ni....Figure 8.7 Planar‐to‐cellular transition in as‐cast Al‐4.5Cu plate welded wi...Figure 8.8 Planar‐to‐cellular and cellular to dendritic transition in 1100 A...Figure 8.9 EB weld of single crystal Fe‐15Cr‐15Ni with sulfur showing transi...Figure 8.10 EB weld of single crystal of pure Fe‐15Cr‐15Ni made in a [110] d...Figure 8.11 Variation in dendrite arm spacing across fusion zone: (a) phase ...Figure 8.12 Transverse cross‐section of GTA weld in 6061 Al alloy: (a) finer...Figure 8.13 Effect of welding processes on microstructure in 6111 Al welds m...Figure 8.14 Effect of welding speed on cell spacing in electron beam welding...Figure 8.15 Effect of heat input per unit length of weld on dendrite arm spa...Figure 8.16 Microstructures near fusion line of GTA welds of 2014 aluminum: ...Figure 8.17 Tensile testing of two GTA welds of 2014 aluminum made without a...Figure 8.18 Increase in welding pool travel speed due to transverse arc osci...Figure E8.1 Al‐Cu phase diagram.Figure P8.3 Schematic sketch of top view of mushy zone.
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Spherical cap of a crystal nucleated on a planar substrate from a...Figure 9.2 Epitaxial growth at fusion line: (a) growth of columnar grains fr...Figure 9.3 Transverse cross‐section showing epitaxial growth of columnar gra...Figure 9.4 Top view of weld of 430 stainless steel (bcc) showing epitaxial g...Figure 9.5 Transverse cross‐section showing epitaxial growth from fusion lin...Figure 9.6 Nonepitaxial growth shown by welding 430 ferritic stainless steel...Figure 9.7 Nondendritic equiaxed grains in fusion zone next to HAZ of 2A97 A...Figure 9.8 Formation mechanism of nondendritic zone near fusion line by Al3Z...Figure 9.9 Competitive growth of columnar grains in bulk fusion zone.Figure 9.10 Competitive growth in weld of 310 stainless steel (~Fe‐25Cr‐20Ni...Figure 9.11 Top surface of pure Cu weld made by EBW showing growth of curved...Figure 9.12 Effect of travel speed on pool shape and columnar grains: (a) lo...Figure 9.13 Gas–tungsten arc welds of 99.96% Al: (a) 250 mm/min welding spee...Figure 9.14 Effect of welding speed on columnar grains in weld metal: (a, b)...Figure 9.15 Axial grains in GTAW: (a) 2014 Al (~Al4.4Cu) at 3.6 mm/s welding...Figure 9.16 Axial grain in 316 stainless steel quenched with Woods metal dur...Figure 9.17 Oscillated arc Al welds (welding from right to left): (a) alloy ...Figure 9.18 Microstructure around weld pool: (a) pool; (b) partially melted ...Figure 9.19 Microstructure around the weld pool boundary: (a) phase diagram;...Figure 9.20 Nucleation mechanisms for equiaxed grains in fusion zone: (a) th...Figure 9.21 Carbon tetrabromide alloyed with salol (solute) showing necking ...Figure 9.22 Quenching during welding of 310 stainless steel induced cracking...Figure 9.23 Grain refining of 2219 Al (~Al‐6.3Cu) by adding (Al‐5Ti‐B) as gr...Figure 9.24 Heterogeneous nucleation and formation of equiaxed grains in fus...Figure 9.25 TiB2 nuclei in 6061 Al welded by GTAW: (a) two grains nucleated ...Figure 9.26 Evidence of heterogeneous nucleation by TiN in GTAW of ferritic ...Figure 9.27 Growth restriction factor Q = m L C o(k − 1) and consti...Figure 9.28 Schematic diagrams showing how the relationship between grain si...Figure 9.29 Grain size plotted against 1/Q for Al alloys: (a) different leve...Figure 9.30 Effect of welding conditions on temperature gradient G at growth...Figure 9.31 Effect of welding conditions on grain structure of 6061 Al weld:...Figure 9.32 Effect of grain size on weld metal ductility of a Cr‐Ni iron bas...Figure 9.33 Schematic sketch showing application of external magnetic field ...Figure 9.34 Grain refining by stirring weld pool with an ultrasonic probe: (...Figure 9.35 Effect of ultrasonic oscillation amplitude on grain refining in ...Figure 9.36 Effect of offset of ultrasonic probe on grain refining in AZ31 M...Figure 9.37 AZ31 Mg (~Mg‐3Al‐1Zn) welded by gas–tungsten arc welding at 3.18...Figure 9.38 Effect of arc oscillation frequency and amplitude on grain refin...Figure 9.39 Identification of the nucleation mechanism of equiaxed grains in...Figure 9.40 Overlap welding similar to Figure 9.39b, suggesting either dendr...Figure 9.41 Overlap welding similar to Figure 9.40d, suggesting dendrite fra...Figure 9.42 Effect of arc oscillation on cooling curve during welding of AZ3...Figure 9.43 Arc oscillation helping grain refining: (a) no arc oscillation; ...Figure 9.44 Grain‐boundary (GB) migration in 310 stainless steel weld: (a) n...Figure E9.1 End of crater of a gas−tungsten arc weld of a 430 stainless stee...Figure P9.1 Schematic sketch of grain structure in an arc weld.Figure P9.2 A two‐pass weld with the second pass made normal to the first we...Figure P9.3 Schematic sketches of welds made normal to the coarse grains in ...Figure P9.4 Schematic sketch of the weld pool and its adjacent fusion zone d...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Microsegregation caused by Case III solute redistribution: (a) p...Figure 10.2 Microsegregation across columnar dendrites near quenched weld po...Figure 10.3 Microsegregation in weld metal of 308 stainless steel: (a) phase...Figure 10.4 Microsegregation in laser weld of superaustenitic stainless stee...Figure 10.5 Increasing dendrite‐core solute contents with increasing travel ...Figure 10.6 Calculated microsegregation in Fe‐3.3Nb weld showing dendrite ti...Figure 10.7 Growing dendrites quenched during GTAW of stainless steels: (a) ...Figure 10.8 Growing dendrites quenched with Wood's metal during GTAW of 312 ...Figure 10.9 Calculated microsegregation: (a) Fe‐23Cr‐12Ni (solid‐state diffu...Figure 10.10 Micrographs of Al welds made by GTAW: (a) 2014 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu) s...Figure 10.11 Binary phase diagrams of Al alloys: (a) Al‐Cu; (b) Al‐Mg. At eu...Figure 10.12 2014 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu) quenched with Wood's metal during welding: ...Figure 10.13 2014 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu) quenched with Wood's metal during welding: ...Figure 10.14 5086 Al (~Al‐4Mg) quenched with Wood's metal during welding: (a...Figure 10.15 SEM images near ends of quenched mushy zones: (a) 2014 Al (~Al‐...Figure 10.16 Grids for composition measurements by EPMA: (a) 2014 Al at 5.78...Figure 10.17 Cu microsegregation near end of quenched 2014 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu) mu...Figure 10.18 Mg microsegregation near end of quenched 5086 Al (~Al‐4.0Mg) mu...Figure E10.1 Al‐Si phase diagram.Figure E10.2 Ternary alloy Fe‐15Cr‐15Ni: (a) vertical section of Fe‐Cr‐Ni ph...Figure P10.1 Al‐Cu phase diagram.
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Macrosegregation reported by Savage and Szekeres. Formation of b...Figure 11.2 Fusion boundary of a low‐alloy steel welded with an austenitic s...Figure 11.3 Carbon steel side of weld metal in a weld between a carbon steel...Figure 11.4 Macrosegregation caused by quick freezing: (a) liquid metal 1 fr...Figure 11.5 Dilution of filler metal by base metal.Figure 11.6 Dilution levels determined by geometric calculations in good agr...Figure 11.7 Good agreement between Ni and Cr contents determined by geometri...Figure 11.8 Dissimilar filler metal changing composition of bulk weld metal ...Figure 11.9 Macrosegregation Mechanism I, T LW < T LB, for dissimilar...Figure 11.10 Verification of Mechanism I in welding 1100 Al (~ pure Al) with...Figure 11.11 Macrosegregation Mechanism II, T LW > T LB, for dissimil...Figure 11.12 Verification of Mechanism II in welding heat‐treated Al‐33Cu eu...Figure 11.13 Verification of Mechanism II in welding pure Cu with filler met...Figure 11.14 Pure Ni bead‐on‐plate welded with pure Cu filler wire: (a) tran...Figure 11.15 Pure Cu bead‐on‐plate welded with pure Ni filler wire: (a) tran...Figure 11.16 A36 steel welded with filler metal 309L stainless steel: (a) tr...Figure 11.17 Formation of layers of islands by Mechanism I under weld pool f...Figure 11.18 Schaeffler's diagram showing compositions of weld and beach in ...Figure 11.19 309 stainless steel welded with filler metal ER70 steel: (a) tr...Figure 11.20 Schaeffler's diagram showing compositions of weld and beach in ...Figure 11.21 Mechanism I for macrosegregation in dissimilar‐metal welding un...Figure 11.22 Mechanism II for macrosegregation in dissimilar‐metal welding u...Figure 11.23 Transverse macrograph of Cu‐to‐steel arc weld: (a) overall stru...Figure 11.24 Composition measurements by EPMA inside and across the weld....Figure 11.25 Microstructure in Cu‐to‐steel weld: (a) layered fusion zone; (b...Figure 11.26 Metastable miscibility gap below equilibrium liquidus line show...Figure 11.27 Slow diffusion during cooling can cause deviation from gap, Fe‐...Figure 11.28 Summary of segregation features in dissimilar‐metal welding rev...Figure 11.29 Elimination of unmixed zone (base‐metal beach) by ultrasonic vi...Figure 11.30 Filler metal dilution and composition in dissimilar‐metal weldi...Figure 11.31 Macrosegregation in a multiple‐pass weld between 4130 steel and...Figure 11.32 Variations in microstructure in a multiple‐pass weld between 41...Figure E11.2 1100 Al welded with filler metal 4145 Al: (a) transverse microg...Figure P11.1 1100 Al welded with Al‐52.5Cu filler wire: (a) transverse micro...Figure P11.2 Transverse macrograph of Cu‐30Ni alloy welded with pure Ni as f...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Wood's metal quenching: (a) top view of weld pool and surroundin...Figure 12.2 Microstructure near centerlines of top surfaces of 304 stainless...Figure 12.3 Microstructure in the fusion zone far behind the bottom of the m...Figure 12.4 Formation of vermicular and lathy ferrite: (a) mechanism; (b) la...Figure 12.5 Schaeffler diagram for predicting weld ferrite content and solid...Figure 12.6 Effect of nitrogen on ferrite content in gas–tungsten arc welds ...Figure 12.7 WRC‐1992 diagram. Transformation sequence for each mode shown....Figure 12.8 WRC‐1992 diagram with martensite boundaries for 1, 4, and 10% Mn...Figure 12.9 Experimentally measured ferrite number (FN) versus predicted FN:...Figure 12.10 Vertical section of Fe–Ni–Cr phase diagram at 59% Fe showing se...Figure 12.11 Electron beam travel speed (cooling rate) versus composition ma...Figure 12.12 Vertical section of Fe–Cr–Ni phase diagram showing change in so...Figure 12.13 Continuous cooling transformation diagram for weld metal of low...Figure 12.14 Micrographs showing typical weld metal microstructures in low‐c...Figure 12.15 Acicular ferrite and inclusion particles in a low‐carbon, low‐a...Figure 12.16 Schematic sketch showing effect of alloy additions, cooling tim...Figure 12.17 Continuous cooling transformation diagram for weld metal of low...Figure 12.18 Prior austenite grain diameter as a function of weld metal oxyg...Figure 12.19 Acicular ferrite content as a function of shielding gas oxygen ...Figure 12.20 Subsize Charpy V‐notch toughness values as a function of volume...Figure 12.21 Weld metal Charpy V‐notch toughness expressed as transition tem...Figure 12.22 SEM images of weld metal of an ultralow carbon bainitic steel: ...Figure 12.23 SEM image of interlaced multiphase microstructure of a steel we...Figure 12.24 Results of creep‐rupture tests replotted in terms of Larson‐Mil...Figure 12.25 δ‐ferrite in fusion zone of high‐Al weld in as‐welded condition...Figure 12.26 Quasi‐binary phase diagram of P91 steel calculated using Thermo...Figure 12.27 SEM images of the weld metals: (a) high Al‐weld showing coarse ...Figure 12.28 Precipitation of nitrides: (a) AlN dominating in high‐Al weld; ...Figure 12.29 Idealized liquidus projection of ternary Fe‐Cr‐C phase diagram....Figure 12.30 Transverse cross‐section of an overlay showing its dilution by ...Figure 12.31 Effect of AC balance (fraction of time in electrode positive) o...Figure 12.32 Microstructure variation across thickness of Cr‐carbide overlay...Figure 12.33 Typical microstructure of Ni‐WC overlay deposited by GMAW.Figure 12.34 Poly Tung NiBWC tubular wire: (a) transverse cross‐section; (b)...Figure 12.35 Four‐layer square overlay made by GMAW‐CSC: (a) motion patterns...Figure 12.36 Microstructure and composition of Ni‐WC overlay: (a) SEM image ...Figure 12.37 Thermodynamic analysis of Ni‐39.58W‐1.08C‐0.67B‐0.36Fe‐0.34Si: ...Figure 12.38 Thermodynamic analysis of Ni‐39.58W‐1.08C‐0.67B‐0.36Fe‐0.34Si‐5...Figure E12.2 Microstructure of 309 stainless steel revealed by quenching wit...
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Solidification cracking in bead‐on‐plate weld of 6061 Al (~Al‐1M...Figure 13.2 Solidification cracking in an autogenous bead on plate weld of 7...Figure 13.3 Solidification cracking in 2024 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu‐1.5Mg) lap weld ma...Figure 13.4 SEM images of fracture surfaces of 5083 Al (Al‐4.5Mg) welds: (a)...Figure 13.5 Columnar grains and solidification cracking: (a) columnar grains...Figure 13.6 Solidification cracking criterion and crack susceptibility index...Figure 13.7 Solidification of succinonitrile‐acetone organic alloy (from lef...Figure 13.8 Calculated crack susceptibility of wrought Al alloys consistent ...Figure 13.9 Predictions of crack susceptibility reduction by filler metals: ...Figure 13.10 Spikes occasionally found on fracture surfaces after cracking d...Figure 13.11 Mechanism of spike formation without solid‐to‐solid bridging be...Figure 13.12 Binary Al‐Cu system: (a) phase diagram; (b) maximum steepness a...Figure 13.13 Binary Al‐Cu system: (a) phase diagram; (b) T‐(f S)1/2 cur...Figure 13.14 Calculating peak crack susceptibility of binary alloy system: (...Figure 13.15 Varestraint test (most widely used crack susceptibility test si...Figure 13.16 Varestraint test results: (a) ferritic stainless‐steel weld aft...Figure 13.17 Controlled tensile weldability (CTW) test: (a) front view; (b) ...Figure 13.18 Transverse‐motion weldability (TMW) test: (a) schematic; (b) ph...Figure 13.19 Normalized crack length: (a) overview; (b) weld enlarged. Trave...Figure 13.20 TMW test results of Al alloys: (a) 2219 Al; (b) 2024 Al; (c) 70...Figure 13.21 Susceptibility of commercial wrought Al alloys to solidificatio...Figure 13.22 Effect of filler metals on crack susceptibility of 6061 Al show...Figure 13.23 Crack susceptibility reduction of 2024 Al by filler metals: (a)...Figure 13.24 Comparison between Varestaint test and transverse‐motion weldab...Figure 13.25 Circular‐patch welding test: (a) top view of specimen; (b) vert...Figure 13.26 Solidification cracking in circular‐patch welding of 3.2 mm thi...Figure 13.27 Houldcroft test specimen.Figure 13.28 Cast pin test.Figure 13.29 Constraint‐rod casting: (a) mold design; (b) cracks in a Mg cas...Figure 13.30 Ring casting for testing susceptibility to cracking during soli...Figure 13.31 Vertical sections of Fe‐Cr‐Ni ternary phase diagram: (a) 304 (~...Figure 13.32 Room‐temperature microstructure in fusion zones of stainless st...Figure 13.33 Results of circular‐welding tests of solidification cracking su...Figure 13.34 Solidification crack susceptibility of austenitic stainless ste...Figure 13.35 Microstructure near centerline of top surface of 304L weld quen...Figure 13.36 Microstructure near centerline of top surface of 310 weld quenc...Figure 13.37 Explaining why fine equiaxed grains are less susceptible to sol...Figure 13.38 Effect of grain size on solidification cracking of 7108 Al (~Al...Figure 13.39 Nb‐bearing superalloys: (a) microstructure of one alloy contain...Figure 13.40 Effect of solidification paths (solid lines) on solidification ...Figure 13.41 Effect of solidification paths (thick lines) on solidification ...Figure 13.42 Effect of alloying elements on the solidification temperature r...Figure 13.43 Binary Al‐Mg system (Compare with Al‐Cu in Figure 13.13): (a) p...Figure 13.44 Effect of Cu back diffusion on binary Al‐Cu system (Compare wit...Figure 13.45 Effect of Mg back diffusion on binary Al‐Mg system (Compare wit...Figure 13.46 Crack susceptibility shown by transverse‐motion weldability tes...Figure 13.47 Mg‐Gd system: (a) phase diagram; (b) crack susceptibility curve...Figure 13.48 Grain boundary liquid: (a) dihedral angle; (b) distribution of ...Figure 13.49 Extensive bonding delayed, e.g. to (f S)1/2 > 0.98, by very smal...Figure 13.50 Binary Al‐Sn system: (a) phase diagram; (b) T‐(f S)1/2 cur...Figure 13.51 Solidification cracking in steel weld.Figure 13.52 Crack susceptibility curves of binary Al alloy systems: (a) Al‐...Figure 13.53 Solidification cracking susceptibility of aluminum alloys: (a) ...Figure 13.54 Approximate levels of dilution in aluminum welding: (a) 20% in ...Figure 13.55 Schematic sketch of multipass welding. Note that the root pass ...Figure 13.56 Buttering the groove faces of very high carbon steel with a 310...Figure 13.57 Effect of Mn/S ratio and carbon content on solidification crack...Figure 13.58 Solidification cracking in 2014 Al welds: (a) effect of arc osc...Figure 13.59 Schematic sketches showing effect of arc oscillation on crack p...Figure 13.60 Solidification cracking in 5052 Al welds: (a) effect of arc osc...Figure 13.61 Effect of grain refining on solidification cracking of 321 stai...Figure 13.62 Effect of weld bead shape on tension and solidification crackin...Figure 13.63 Effect of weld depth‐to‐width ratio on centerline cracking: (a)...Figure E13.1 Crack susceptibility curve for Al‐Mg alloys shown by Dowd [19]....Figure E13.2a Transverse cross‐section of a butt joint without a gap showing...Figure E13.2b Crack‐susceptibility map for Al‐Si‐Mg alloys [29, 140].Figure E13.3 Effect of filler metals on solidification cracking of 2024 Al [...Figure P13.1 Binary Al‐Si alloys: (a) phase diagram; (b) curves of T vs. (fS...
14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Temperature range of ductility dip and location of ductility dip...Figure 14.2 Approximate compositions of some Ni‐base alloys and stainless st...Figure 14.3 Cracking in 310 stainless steel after trans Varestraint testing:...Figure 14.4 Spot Varestraint testing of reheated weld metal of 690: (a) spot...Figure 14.5 Assessing susceptibility of ductility‐dip cracking by Varestrain...Figure 14.6 Preparation of sample for strain‐to‐fracture test: (a) vertical ...Figure 14.7 Schematic diagram of strain‐to‐fracture test procedure used in s...Figure 14.8 Applied strain vs. temperature strain‐to‐fracture test results f...Figure 14.9 Example of PVR test applied to study ductility‐dip cracking in b...Figure 14.10 Procedure for recording grain‐boundary sliding (GBS) in strain‐...Figure 14.11 Types of crack initiation by GBS: (a‐c) SEM images taken from a...Figure 14.12 Grain‐boundary (GB) misorientation and ductility‐dip cracking i...Figure 14.13 Effect of GB tortuosity and precipitates on GB sliding, strain ...Figure 14.14 Grain boundaries in Ni‐base filler metals after strain‐to‐fract...Figure 14.15 Effect of base‐metal grain size on susceptibility of NiCr15Fe‐t...Figure 14.16 Effect of S and P on temperature range in which Ni‐base alloy 6...Figure 14.17 304 stainless steel quenched with liquid Wood's metal during ga...Figure 14.18 Microstructure in the right boxed area in Figure 14.17. Formati...Figure 14.19 Cracking caused by tension induced by quenching during welding:...Figure E14.1 Ductility‐dip temperature ranges of three different filler meta...Figure E14.2 Cracking in a 316 austenitic stainless steel quenched during we...Figure P14.2 Spot‐Varestraint‐test results of deposits of two filler metals ...
15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Melting and solidification of: (a) pure metal at melting point T Figure 15.2 Formation of partially melted zone PMZ (S): (a) phase diagram; (...Figure 15.3 Partially melted zone (PMZ) in 6061 Al welded with filler 4145 A...Figure 15.4 Partially melted zone (PMZ) in 2219 Al welded with filler metal ...Figure 15.5 Liquation Mechanism I for an alloy with a solute content beyond ...Figure 15.6 Liquation of 2219 Al by Mechanism I: (a) phase diagram; (b) SEM ...Figure 15.7 Transverse cross‐section of a bead‐on‐plate weld of 2219 Al: (a)...Figure 15.8 Liquation Mechanism II for an alloy with a solute content below ...Figure 15.9 Liquation of homogenized Al‐4.5Cu by Mechanism II: (a) phase dia...Figure 15.10 Liquation Mechanism III for an alloy with a solute content belo...Figure 15.11 Liquation of as‐cast Al‐4.5Cu by Mechanism III: (a) phase diagr...Figure 15.12 Constitutional liquation in IN 718 caused by Laves phase reacti...Figure 15.13 Microstructural variations at a point in the PMZ during welding...Figure 15.14 “Ghost” grain boundaries near fusion boundary of Ni‐base alloy ...Figure 15.15 Directional solidification of GB liquid – upward and inward tow...Figure 15.16 Directional solidification of GB liquid in PMZ upward and towar...Figure 15.17 Mode of directional solidification of grain‐boundary liquid: (a...Figure 15.18 Solute segregation across grain boundary in PMZ.Figure 15.19 Cu segregation across grain boundary in PMZ of 2219 Al: (a) SEM...Figure 15.20 Weakening of 2219 Al weld PMZ by solute segregation: (a) tensil...Figure 15.21 Hydrogen‐induced cracking in the PMZ of HY‐80 steel.Figure 15.22 Effect of heat input on width of PMZ.Figure 15.23 Effect of welding current on PMZ width of 6061 Al: (a) 100 A; (...Figure 15.24 Effect of transverse arc oscillation on width of PMZ: (a) no os...Figure 15.25 Effect of arc oscillation on PMZ liquation in 2014 Al (~Al‐4Cu)...
16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Intergranular cracking in a bead‐on‐plate, partial‐penetration w...Figure 16.2 Longitudinal cross‐section of partially melted zone (PMZ) of 221...Figure 16.3 Liquation cracking in PMZ of 7075 Al weld made with filler metal...Figure 16.4 Liquation cracking in PMZ at tip of partial‐penetrating weld mad...Figure 16.5 Mg‐alloy specimens for circular‐patch welding test of liquation ...Figure 16.6 Mechanism of liquation cracking in partially melted zone (PMZ)....Figure 16.7 Criterion for predicting susceptibility to liquation cracking: (...Figure 16.8 Solidifying weld metal vs. solidifying PMZ: (a) top view of weld...Figure 16.9 Crack susceptibility criterion verified by circular‐patch weldin...Figure 16.10 Effect of backfilling on liquation cracking: (a) open crack in ...Figure 16.11 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al (~ Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) welded with 5356...Figure 16.12 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al (~ Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) welded with 4043...Figure 16.13 Crack susceptibility criterion verified by circular‐patch weldi...Figure 16.14 Effect of heat input on liquation cracking in Varestraint testi...Figure 16.15 Effect of heat input on liquation cracking in PMZ of 2014 Al (~...Figure 16.16 Effect of grain size on concentration of liquation‐causing mate...Figure 16.17 Effect of grain size on liquation cracking in Varestraint testi...Figure 16.18 Effect of grain size and boron content on liquation cracking in...Figure 16.19 Liquation cracking in two Al–4.5% Cu alloys: (a) small grains; ...Figure 16.20 Liquation cracking in as‐cast AZ91 Mg welded with AZ31 Mg as fi...Figure 16.21 Binary Mg‐Al phase diagram.Figure 16.22 Liquation cracking in resistance spot weld of 5754 Al (~Al‐3.2M...Figure 16.23 Liquation in friction stir spot weld of 3.1 mm as‐cast AZ91 Mg ...Figure 16.24 Liquation cracking in friction stir spot weld of as‐cast AZ91 M...Figure 16.25 FSSW of 6061 Al (~Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si), 2219 Al (~Al‐6.3Cu) and AZ91 M...Figure 16.26 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al, 2219 Al and AZ91 Mg alloys.Figure 16.27 FSW of Mg‐Zn alloys: (a) and (b) Mg‐6Zn showing sign of liquati...Figure 16.28 Curves of fraction solid fS vs. temperature T showing fraction ...Figure 16.29 Direct evidence of liquation in Al‐to‐Mg lap FSW: (a) liquid dr...Figure 16.30 Friction stir welding of metal A to metal B: (a) butt; (b) conv...Figure 16.31 Effect of materials positions on peak temperatures (and hence h...Figure 16.32 Transverse cross‐sections of butt welds: (a) weld B‐7; (b) weld...Figure 16.33 Effect of materials positions on peak temperatures (and hence h...Figure 16.34 Single‐pass lap FSW of metal A to metal B: (a) conventional; (b...Figure 16.35 Transverse cross‐sections of lap welds: (a) conventional lap we...Figure 16.36 Binary Al‐Cu phase diagram.Figure 16.37 Tensile test curves of conventional lap weld CL‐1 (1.5 ipm or 3...Figure 16.38 Transverse cross‐sections of lap welds: (a)—(c) conventional la...Figure E16.2Figure E16.2 T‐f S curves of 2024 Al and its butt welds with vari...Figure P16.2 T‐f S curves of 2024 Al and its welds made with 4043 Al and 1100...
17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Recrystallization and grain growth of work‐hardened brass: (a) s...Figure 17.2 Effect of annealing temperature and time on strength and grain s...Figure 17.3 Three steps in artificial aging of Al‐Cu alloys (e.g. Al‐4Cu): s...Figure 17.4 TEM image and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern ...Figure 17.5 TEM images of Al‐4.11Cu solution heat treated and then artificia...Figure 17.6 Artificial aging of 6061‐T4 Al. Aging beyond the time strength p...Figure 17.7 An example showing Al‐Zn‐Mg (7000‐series) alloys can gain streng...Figure 17.8 Two steps in precipitation hardening of heat‐treatable Ni‐base a...Figure 17.9 γ′ in Ni‐base alloys: (a) cubical γ′ in IN‐100 (13 625×); and (b...Figure 17.10 Schematic sketch of microstructure observed in some Ni‐base sup...Figure 17.11 Aging characteristics of some Ni‐base alloys.Figure 17.12 Comparison between welding and heat treating of steel: (a) ther...Figure 17.13 HAZ microstructure of carbon steel (e.g. 1018) and Fe‐C phase d...Figure 17.14 Mechanism of partial grain refining in a carbon steel.Figure 17.15 Microstructure in weld of 1018 steel (4.8 mm thick) made by gas...Figure 17.16 SEM images showing microstructure in the weld in Figure 17.15 m...Figure 17.17 Microstructure in weld of 1018 steel made by FSW. The welding c...Figure 17.18 HAZ microstructure of 1018 steel produced by a high power CO2 l...Figure 17.19 HAZ microstructure of a GTA weld of 1040 steel.Figure 17.20 Continuous cooling transformation diagram for 1040 steel [42]....Figure 17.21 Hardness profiles across HAZ of a 1040 steel; (a) without prehe...Figure 17.22 Schematic sketch of microstructure of dual phase steel.Figure 17.23 Fe‐Cr phase diagram.Figure 17.24 Phase diagrams: (a) Fe‐C; (b) Fe‐Cr; (c) Fe‐Ni‐Cr at 70% Fe....Figure 17.25 Sensitization of unstabilized grades of austenitic stainless st...Figure 17.26 Sensitization of austenitic stainless steels stabilized with Ti...Figure 17.27 Sensitization in 347 stainless steel: (a) solution annealed at ...
18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Grain growth near fusion line of weld of 430 ferritic stainless ...Figure 18.2 Grain growth near fusion line of weld of 312 duplex stainless st...Figure 18.3 Grain growth in HAZ: (a) transverse cross‐section of weld and th...Figure 18.4 Effect of welding on work‐hardened material: (a) before welding;...Figure 18.5 Microstructure of the weld of a work hardened 304 stainless stee...Figure 18.6 Hardness profiles across welds of work‐hardened materials: (a) a...Figure 18.7 Effect of heat input on welding of work‐hardened materials: (a) ...Figure 18.8 Effect of heat input on HAZ hardness in arc welding of 5356 Al (...Figure 18.9 Microstructure in a 2219 Al that has been aged to contain θ′ pre...Figure 18.10 HAZ of an Al‐Cu alloy prepared to contain θ′ (similar to T6 tem...Figure 18.11 Microstructure in a 2219 Al that has been aged to contain GP zo...Figure 18.12 HAZ of an Al‐Cu alloy prepared to contain GP zones (similar to ...Figure 18.13 Transverse cross‐section of 2024 Al (~Al‐4.4Cu‐1.5Mg) lap‐welde...Figure 18.14 2219 Al (~Al‐6.3Cu) welded in T6 condition by gas−tungsten arc ...Figure 18.15 2219 Al (~Al‐6.3Cu) welded after solution heat treating plus qu...Figure 18.16 Effect of rotation speed on underwater friction stir welding of...Figure 18.17 Effect of welding process on microhardness profile: (a) gas−tun...Figure 18.18 Effect of arc oscillation on HAZ width in GTAW of 2014‐T6 Al (~...Figure 18.19 Microhardness profiles in HAZs of 6061 Al: (a) welded in T6 tem...Figure 18.20 Welding 6061 Al in: (a) T6 temper; (b) T4 temper.Figure 18.21 Microhardness profiles across friction stir weld along the mid‐...Figure 18.22 TEM images of as‐welded 6063‐T5 Al at locations indicated in Fi...Figure 18.23 Less overaging in welding 6061‐T4 Al with a smaller heat input....Figure 18.24 Effect of welding process and condition on HAZ width of 6061‐T6...Figure 18.25 Microhardness profiles in HAZs of 7005 Al (~Al‐4.5Zn‐1.2Mg) all...Figure 18.26 Microhardness profiles in HAZs of 7146 Al (~Al‐7.1Zn‐1.3Mg) all...Figure 18.27 Reversion of γ′ in HAZ: (a) phase diagram; (b) thermal cycles; ...Figure 18.28 Microstructure of Udimet 700 weld: (a) as‐received material; (b...Figure 18.29 Linear‐friction‐welded Waspaloy rectangular rods (13 mm × 11 mm...Figure 18.30 Hardness profiles in IN 718 welds in as‐welded condition: (a) l...Figure 18.31 Hardness profiles in IN 718 welds after postweld heat treating:...Figure 18.32 Laser weld of dual phase steel DP600: (a) microhardness profile...Figure 18.33 Subcritical region of dual phase steels where martensite can be...Figure 18.34 Laser weld of dual phase steel DP980: (a) microhardness profile...
19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Diffusion of hydrogen from weld metal to HAZ during welding.Figure 19.2 Diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in ferritic and austenitic mat...Figure 19.3 Underbead crack in a low‐alloy steel HAZ (10×).Figure 19.4 Hydrogen cracking in a fillet weld of 1040 steel (5×).Figure 19.5 Implant test for hydrogen cracking.Figure 19.6 Implant test results for a HSLA pipeline steel.Figure 19.7 Lehigh restraint specimen.Figure 19.8 Effect of preheating on hydrogen cracking of a high strength ste...Figure 19.9 Effect of carbon equivalent on preheat requirement to prevent hy...Figure 19.10 Reheat cracking in a CrMoV steel: (a) macrostructure (×35); (b)...Figure 19.11 Fracture surfaces after stress‐relief cracking: (a) intergranul...Figure 19.12 Schematic illustration of stress‐relief cracking: (a) welding t...Figure 19.13 Crack susceptibility C‐curves of ferritic steels.Figure 19.14 Schematic diagrams of Gleeble‐based test of susceptibility to s...Figure 19.15 Stress‐relief‐cracking susceptibility ranking of high‐temperatu...Figure 19.16 Lamellar tearing in steel weld: (a) stringers of inclusions in ...Figure 19.17 Multipass weld with slag inclusions (D) and other defects, incl...Figure 19.18 The Lehigh cantilever lamellar tearing test.Figure 19.19 Lamellar tearing of a corner joint: (a) improper design; (b) im...Figure 19.20 Schematic distribution of peak temperature and variations in as...Figure 19.21 Cracking along the HAZ outer edge of Grade 91 steel after postw...Figure 19.22 Hardness profiles across HAZ of Grade 91 steel in the as‐welded...Figure 19.23 Strain‐age cracking of heat‐treatable Ni‐base alloy: (a) phase ...Figure 19.24 Strain‐age cracking in weld of Rene 41 (Ni‐19Cr‐11Co‐10M0‐5Fe‐3...Figure 19.25 Minimum elongation in correlation of controlled heating rate te...Figure 19.26 Effect of Al and Ti contents on postweld heat‐treatment crackin...Figure 19.27 Crack susceptibility C‐curves for Waspaloy and Inconel 718 weld...Figure 19.28 Crack susceptibility C‐curve for a Rene 41 solution annealed be...Figure 19.29 Effect of heating rate on strain‐age cracking of a Rene 41 solu...Figure 19.30 Effect of welding heat input on strain‐age cracking of Rene 41....Figure 19.31 Effect of composition on strain‐age cracking of Rene 41.
20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Intergranular corrosion caused by weld decay in HAZ of 304 stain...Figure 20.2 Sensitization (weld decay) in austenitic stainless steel: (a) pr...Figure 20.3 Failure of welded 304 stainless steel pipe caused by weld decay:...Figure 20.4 Time‐temperature‐sensitization curves of 304 stainless steel in ...Figure 20.5 Intergranular attack of 316 and 316L stainless steels by oxalic ...Figure 20.6 Effect of grain boundary structure on intergranular corrosion (w...Figure 20.7 Welds in austenitic stainless steels: (a) weld decay in 304 stai...Figure 20.8 Intergranular corrosion in IN690 gas‐tungsten arc weld. CGZ: coa...Figure 20.9 Intergranular corrosion in IN690 laser‐beam weld. White lines in...Figure 20.10 Transverse cross‐section of a weld of a stabilized austenitic s...Figure 20.11 Sensitization in Ti‐stabilized austenitic stainless steel (C ti...Figure 20.12 Knife‐line attack in HAZ right next to the fusion line of 321 s...Figure 20.13 Vertical section of ternary Fe‐Cr‐C phase diagram at carbon con...Figure 20.14 Effect of heat input on sensitization of Fe‐11.6Cr ferritic sta...Figure 20.15 Stress corrosion cracking in a 316 stainless steel [4].Figure E20.1 Two bead‐on‐plate welds made in a stabilized‐grade stainless st...
21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Additive manufacturing of metal: (a) directed energy deposition:...Figure 21.2 Column, cuboid, line, and logo (University of Wisconsin) prepare...Figure 21.3 Calculated cross‐section of first two hatches of build in powder...Figure 21.4 Effect of dwell time (time between subsequent layers of depositi...Figure 21.5 Thermal cycles experienced by three thermocouples located at dif...Figure 21.6 Lack of fusion voids and gas porosity. The cross‐section of a bu...Figure 21.7 Possible mechanism of formation of hydrogen porosity in powder b...Figure 21.8 Schematic illustration of the concept of internal (drying inside...Figure 21.9 Effect of scan speed and powder drying temperature on hydrogen p...Figure 21.10 Effect of processing parameters on hydrogen porosity in AlSi10M...Figure 21.11 Eliminating solidification cracking in powder bed fusion of 707...Figure 21.12 Schematic illustration of induction heating of build and substr...Figure 21.13 Solidification and liquation cracking in laser metal deposition...Figure 21.14 Effect of Ti on solidification cracking in laser metal depositi...Figure 21.15 Three example cases of crack initiation and propagation in mult...Figure 21.16 Directed energy (laser) deposition of 738 Ni‐base superalloy po...Figure 21.17 Directed energy (laser) deposition of 738 Ni‐base superalloy po...Figure 21.18 Cracking in single‐pass multilayer Ni‐base superalloy 718 prepa...Figure 21.19 Micrographs showing cracks in single‐pass multilayer Ni‐base su...Figure 21.20 Partial melting (melting mostly along GBs) in single‐pass, mult...Figure 21.21 Partial melting in multipass multilayer laser metal deposition ...Figure 21.22 Buttered layer between carbon steel SA508 and austenitic stainl...Figure 21.23 Gradual composition change from Fe‐2.25Cr (ferritic) to 800H (a...Figure E21.1 Sketch of porosity in powder bed fusion of Al alloy AlSi10Mg ba...Figure P21.1 Sketch of the cross‐section of a single‐pass multilayer Ni‐base...
22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Transverse cross‐section of bead‐on‐plate weld made by GMAW of 1...Figure 22.2 Butt weld between 6061 Al (~Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) and AZ31 Mg (~Mg‐3Al‐1...Figure 22.3 Example techniques developed by various investigators to join Al...Figure 22.4 6111 Al (~Al‐0.7Mg‐0.8Si) 1.0 mm thick lap‐joined to galvanized ...Figure 22.5 Coating on galvanized steel: (a) optical micrograph; (b) SEM ima...Figure 22.6 Fe‐Zn phase diagram.Figure 22.7 Coating on aluminized steel: (a) optical micrograph; (b) SEM ima...Figure 22.8 Fe‐Al phase diagram.Figure 22.9 Lap welding of Al to steel by GMAW: (a) before welding; (b) begi...Figure 22.10 Specimen for shear tension testing of Al‐to‐steel lap weld in t...Figure 22.11 Fracture surfaces of Al‐to‐steel welds after shear tension test...Figure 22.12 Smooth weld/steel interface: (a) schematic sketch; (b) transver...Figure 22.13 Weld/steel interface with craters: (a) schematic sketch of stee...Figure 22.14 Intermetallic layers at weld/steel interfaces: (a) SEM image of...Figure 22.15 Lap welding of 3.2 mm 5754 Al (~Al‐3Mg) to 2.5 mm galvanized st...Figure 22.16 Effect of joint gap: (a) joint gap; (b) thickness of intermetal...Figure 22.17 Regular GMAW: (a) current; (b) voltage; (c) SEM of weld/steel i...Figure 22.18 Adaptive Pulsed GMAW: (a) current; (b) voltage; (c) SEM of weld...Figure 22.19 Lower heat input of adaptive pulsed GMAW resulting in higher jo...Figure 22.20 Arc brazing Al to stainless steel by GTAW: (a) with workpiece u...Figure 22.21 Effect of preheating on wetting angle and width of bonding in g...Figure 22.22 5A02 Al (~Al‐2.4Mg‐0.4Si) joined to 304 stainless steel by GTAW...Figure 22.23 Decreasing the interlayer thickness and increasing the joint st...Figure 22.24 Welding steel to Al by laser‐beam welding with a keyhole.Figure 22.25 Steel‐to‐Al laser‐beam welding: (a) welding with a keyhole; (b)...Figure 22.26 Dual‐beam laser welding of steel to Al: (a) process; (b) spatte...Figure 22.27 Butt joining of Mg to steel by keyhole laser brazing.Figure 22.28 Mg‐Fe phase diagram.Figure 22.29 Lap‐joined AZ31 Mg (Mg‐3Al‐1Zn) to galvanized steel, both 1.5 m...Figure 22.30 Example techniques developed by various investigators for Al‐to...Figure 22.31 Joining 2 mm 5052 Al to 1 mm low‐carbon steels that are: (a) ga...Figure 22.32 301L stainless steel welded to 6063 Al by RSW: (a) vertical sec...Figure 22.33 Example techniques developed by various investigators for dissi...Figure 22.34 Mechanism of resistance spot welding of Mg to galvanized steel:...Figure 22.35 5754 Al (2 mm) joined to AZ31 Mg (2 mm) by RSW with a galvanize...Figure 22.36 Tool for friction‐stir spot welding of 6061 Al (~Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) ...Figure 22.37 Tool holder for wireless temperature measurements: (a) tool hol...Figure 22.38 A high‐strength weld between 6061 Al and Cu: (a) vertical cross...Figure 22.39 Strength of Al‐to‐Cu weld made by FSSW: (a) shear‐tension‐test ...Figure 22.40 Comparison between welds: (a) strong weld with a Cu ring extrud...Figure 22.41 Effect of plunge rate on strength of welds of 6061 Al and Cu ma...Figure 22.42 Wild fluctuations in joint strength in 100 Al‐to‐Cu welds made ...Figure 22.43 Tool left in sample after welding. 1.5 mm thick 6061‐T6 aluminu...Figure 22.44 Flow of material during FSSW of 6061 Al to Cu: (a) Al‐rich, sti...Figure 22.45 Buildup of brittle Cu‐rich intermetallics at pin tip in FSSW of...Figure 22.46 Vertical cross‐section of spot weld of A357 Al (~Al‐7Si) to gal...Figure 22.47 Microstructure and flow pattern in A357 Al (top) welded to galv...Figure 22.48 Optical micrograph near the triple junction between the stir zo...Figure 22.49 Optical micrographs of interfaces in welds made by FSSW between...Figure 22.50 Joining Al to bare steel by FSSW. The lamellar structure consis...Figure 22.51 Joining Al to coated steel by FSSW. No lamellar structure is fo...Figure 22.52 Testing the joint strength of Al‐to‐steel welds made by FSSW: (...Figure 22.53 Fracture surfaces of welds made by FSSW of 6061 Al welded to va...Figure 22.54 Refill FSSW: (a) tool assembly is brought in contact with Al, a...Figure 22.55 Loss of weld strength in refill FSSW of Al to galvanized DP600 ...Figure 22.56 Al‐to‐steel welds produced using 1800 rev/min, 1.0 mm penetrat...Figure 22.57 Linear friction welding of Al to Mg.Figure 22.58 Effect of pressure on formation of AlxMgy intermetallic compoun...Figure 22.59 Al‐to‐Cu joints made by rotary friction welding showing effect ...Figure 22.60 Al‐to‐Mg explosion weld.Figure 22.61 Al tube welded to carbon steel rod by magnetic pulse welding....Figure 22.62 Lap joint between AZ31 Mg and 3003 Al prepared by magnetic puls...Figure E22.1 An Al tube joined by solid‐state welding to a Cu tube with an ...Figure P22.1 Sample cut vertically from a weld made between three horizontal...
23 Chapter 23Figure 23.1 Spatter and vapor deposition on 1.6 mm‐thick AZ31 Mg after GMAW....Figure 23.2 Low Mg density is why Mg globule is light and unable to detach b...Figure 23.3 Conventional GMAW of Mg alloy showing a nearly horizontal globul...Figure 23.4 Voltage and current waveforms during conventional GMAW of AZ31 M...Figure 23.5 First use of GMAW‐CSC welding for Mg sheets. No sudden expansion...Figure 23.6 Voltage and current waveforms during GMAW‐CSC of AZ31 Mg: (a) cu...Figure 23.7 First weld of AZ31 Mg made by GMAW‐CSC, butt weld between 1.6‐mm...Figure 23.8 Lap weld of 1.6‐mm‐thick AZ31 Mg made by GMAW‐CSC: (a) top view ...Figure 23.9 Elimination of fingers from lap weld of 1.6‐mm‐thick AZ31 Mg: (a...Figure 23.10 Gas porosity in AZ31 Mg alloy (~Mg‐3Al‐1Zn) welded by conventio...Figure 23.11 Gas porosity in AZ31 Mg alloy welded by GMAW‐CSC: (a) as‐receiv...Figure 23.12 Tensile testing curves showing porosity can significantly reduc...Figure 23.13 Mechanism of gas‐porosity formation in GMAW of Mg alloys: (a) m...Figure 23.14 Filler wires on spools after extended exposure to air: (a) surf...Figure 23.15 Much higher H solubility (and drop upon solidification) in Mg t...Figure 23.16 Entrapment of oxide films in weld #002: (a) rough edge caused b...Figure 23.17 As‐sheared edges of 1.6‐mm‐thick sheets: (a) rough edge of AZ31...Figure 23.18 Proposed mechanism of oxide‐film entrapment and remedies: (a) m...Figure 23.19 Elimination of oxide films from weld #007: (a) milling of edge ...Figure 23.20 Elimination of oxide films from weld #008: (a) rough edge cause...Figure 23.21 High crowns on butt welds made at travel speeds of: (a) 7.6 mm/...Figure 23.22 Weld #052 with a high crown: (a) top view of weld; (b) transver...Figure 23.23 Mechanism and reduction of high‐crown formation: (a) during sol...Figure 23.24 High crown in Mg butt welding and its reduction: (a) high crown...Figure 23.25 Grain refining of AZ31 Mg by stirring weld pool with an ultraso...Figure 23.26 Grain refining AZ91 Mg weld by transverse arc oscillation at 1 ...Figure 23.27 Crack susceptibility ranking of some commercial Mg alloys: (a) ...Figure 23.28 By welding right next to the starting edge of the workpiece and...Figure 23.29 Liquation cracking in a Mg‐6Zn cast plate (100 mm × 100 mm × 10...Figure 23.30 SEM image of fracture surface caused by liquation cracking in G...Figure 23.31 Liquation cracking at starting edges of workpiece after GTAW: (...Figure 23.32 Effect of Zn content on extents of liquation (GB liquation and ...Figure 23.33 AZ31 Mg workpiece for circular‐weld test. A circular weld can b...Figure 23.34 AZ91 Mg welded with AZ31 Mg filler wire: (a) T‐f S curves predic...Figure 23.35 AZ31 Mg welded with AZ92 Mg filler wire: (a) T‐f S curves predic...Figure 23.36 Grain growth in heat‐affected zone (HAZ) of weld of 1.6 mm‐thic...Figure 23.37 Friction stir weld of AZ31B‐H24 (work‐hardened): (a) grain size...Figure E23.1 Partially melted zone (PMZ) in a weld made by GTAW of an as‐cas...Figure E23.2 Lap welding of Mg sheets by GMAW‐CSC with a stationary steel ba...Figure P23.1 Curves of T vs. f S for AZ91 Mg (workpiece, i.e., the outer piec...Figure P23.2 Transverse cross‐section of butt joint of Weld #002 (left) flip...
24 Chapter 24Figure 24.1 Microstructure near weld pools: (a) CoCrFeNiCu0 showing secondar...Figure 24.2 T‐f S curves of high‐entropy alloys: (a) CoCrFeNiCu0 showing a ve...Figure 24.3 Susceptibility to hot cracking: (a) CoCrFeNiCu0 showing no crack...Figure 24.4 6061 Al reinforced with 20% Al2O3 particles welded by gas‐tungst...Figure 24.5 Transverse macrographs of bead‐on‐plate welds made by GTAW of 6 ...Figure 24.6 Top views of welds made by GTAW of 6 mm‐thick A356 alloy cast wi...Figure 24.7 Nanoparticles and weld size: (a) smaller pool and weld without n...Figure 24.8 As‐cast Al‐Si alloys: (a) without nanoparticles; (b) with 1 wt% ...Figure 24.9 Weld of Al‐7Si‐0.3Mg‐0.5Cu without nanoparticles: (a) transverse...Figure 24.10 Weld of Al‐7Si‐0.3Mg‐0.5Cu with nanoparticles: (a) transverse m...Figure 24.11 Al‐rich (α) dendrites and α/Si interdendritic eutectic in welds...Figure 24.12 Micrographs of full‐penetration welds of as‐cast A356 plates (6...Figure 24.13 Nanoparticles reducing cracking during solidification: (a) hot ...Figure 24.14 Friction stir welding (FSW) of Al‐matrix composite with 30 vol%...Figure 24.15 Friction stir weld of Mg‐matrix nanocomposite with 5%SiC nanopa...Figure P24.1 Microstructure at the top surface of a CoCrFeNiCu1 weld near th...
