Читать книгу Cell Biology - Stephen R. Bolsover - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1. Dimensions of some example cells. 1 mm = 10⁻³ m; 1 μm = 1...Figure 1.2. Organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.Figure 1.3. The tree of life. The diagram shows the currently accepted view...Figure 1.4. Transmission electron micrograph of a capillary blood vessel ru...Figure 1.5. Different types of animal cells.Figure 1.6. Tissues and structures of the intestine wall.Figure 1.7. Scanning electron micrograph of airway epithelium.Figure 1.8. Basic design of a light microscope.Figure 1.9. A simple upright light microscope.Figure 1.10. Cultured human cells on a hemocytometer grid under bright‐fiel...Figure 1.11. Cell structure as seen through light and transmission electron...Figure 1.12. Preparation of tissue for electron microscopy.Figure 1.13. (a) Basic design of a fluorescence light microscope. (b–d) Cul...Figure 1.14. Super‐resolution microscopy. Fluorescence image of the surface...Figure 1.15. (a) Fluorescence microscope image of two‐cell mouse embryo exp...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. Membranes comprise a lipid bilayer plus integral and peripheral...Figure 2.2. Small uncharged molecules can pass through membranes by simple ...Figure 2.3. The nucleus and the relationship of its membranes to those of t...Figure 2.4. The mitochondrion.Figure 2.5. Electron micrographs showing contact sites between the endoplas...Figure 2.6. Gap junctions allow solute and electrical current to pass from ...Figure 2.7. Not all connexins are compatible. A √ indicates a working gap j...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Adenine nucleotides. (a) Deoxyadenosine triphosphate. The H on ...Figure 3.2. The four bases found in DNA.Figure 3.3. The phosphodiester bond and the sugar‐phosphate backbone of DNA...Figure 3.4. The DNA double helix is held together by hydrogen bonds.Figure 3.5. How DNA is packaged into chromosomes.Figure 3.6. A spread of human chromosomes (at metaphase – see page 236). Th...Figure 3.7. Amino acids and the peptide bond.Figure 3.8. DNA makes RNA makes protein: the central dogma of molecular bio...Figure 3.9. The genetic code. Amino acid side chains are shown in alphabeti...Figure 3.10. Reading frames. The genetic code is read in blocks of three.Figure 3.11. Mutations that alter the sequence of bases.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1. DNA replication. The helicases, and the replication fork, are m...Figure 4.2. DNA polymerase III can correct its own mistakes.Figure 4.3. Mismatch repair of DNA.Figure 4.4. Spontaneous reactions corrupt the DNA database.Figure 4.5. Formation of a thymine dimer in DNA.Figure 4.6. Base excision repair.Figure 4.7. The human α‐and β‐globin gene family clusters. ψ indicates a ps...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1. RNA contains the sugar ribose and the base uracil in place of ...Figure 5.2. Synthesis of an RNA strand.Figure 5.3. Numbering on a DNA sequence.Figure 5.4. (a) RNA polymerase binds to the promoter to form the closed pro...Figure 5.5. Rho‐independent transcription termination in Escherichia coli....Figure 5.6. A bacterial operon is transcribed into a polycistronic mRNA.Figure 5.7. Reactions catalyzed by β‐galactosidase.Figure 5.8. Transcription of the lac operon requires the presence of an ind...Figure 5.9. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, also called cyclic AMP or just ...Figure 5.10. For efficient transcription of the lac operon, both cAMP and a...Figure 5.11. Isopropylthio‐β‐D‐galactoside (IPTG), which can bind to the la...Figure 5.12. Transcription of the trp operon is controlled by the concentra...Figure 5.13. mRNA processing in eukaryotes.Figure 5.14. In eukaryotes, RNA polymerase II is guided to the promoter by ...Figure 5.15. Tissue‐specific transcription. The myosin IIa gene is not tran...Figure 5.16. The glucocorticoid hormone receptor acts to increase gene tran...Figure 5.17. The dimerized glucocorticoid hormone receptor binds to a palin...Figure 5.18. Noncoding RNAs such as microRNA (miRNA), long noncoding RNA (l...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1. Overview of protein synthesis.Figure 6.2. Transfer RNA (tRNA).Figure 6.3. Wobble at the third position of the codon allows one tRNA to pa...Figure 6.4. Attachment of an amino acid to its tRNA.Figure 6.5. Prokaryote and eukaryote ribosomes.Figure 6.6. The initial binding of the prokaryote 30S subunit to mRNA. X in...Figure 6.7. Formyl methionine.Figure 6.8. The GDP/GTP cycle of a GTPase.Figure 6.9. Formation of the prokaryote 70S initiation complex.Figure 6.10. Elongation of the protein chain.Figure 6.11. The polyribosome.Figure 6.12. Termination of protein synthesis.Figure 6.13. The ribosome is recycled.Figure 6.14. Puromycin can occupy the ribosome A site.

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1. α‐amino acids and the peptide bond.Figure 7.2. The genetic code. Amino acid side chains are shown in alphabeti...Figure 7.3. Histidine and cysteine have pKa values in the physiological ran...Figure 7.4. Oxidation of adjoining cysteine residues produces a disulfide b...Figure 7.5. Six amino acid side chains can be phosphorylated.Figure 7.6 Structure of the platelet‐derived growth factor receptor.Figure 7.7 Lysozyme: (a) Linear map. (b) Space‐filling model in which carb...Figure 7.8. The α helix. In b and c the carbon atoms of the backbone are bl...Figure 7.9. β sheets.Figure 7.10. (a) The complete calmodulin molecule, composed of two very sim...Figure 7.11. Active catabolite activator protein is a dimer.Figure 7.12. (a) Two zinc finger motifs in the glucocorticoid receptor. Eac...Figure 7.13. The green fluorescent protein molecule comprises a β barrel (s...Figure 7.14. Hemoglobin, a tetrameric protein with heme prosthetic groups. ...Figure 7.15. The iron‐containing prosthetic group heme in the form in which...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1. Synthesis of a double‐stranded cDNA molecule.Figure 8.2. A plasmid cloning vector.Figure 8.3. Recognition sites of some common restriction endonucleases.Figure 8.4. Restriction endonucleases generate two types of cut ends in dou...Figure 8.5. Generation of a recombinant plasmid.Figure 8.6. Introduction of recombinant plasmids into bacteria.Figure 8.7. The technique of Southern blotting.Figure 8.8. (a) The technique of northern blotting. (b) A northern blot rev...Figure 8.9. A chimera of green fluorescent protein and the glucocorticoid r...Figure 8.10. Amplification of a DNA sequence using the polymerase chain rea...Figure 8.11. General structure of a dideoxynucleotide.Figure 8.12. DNA sequencing by the dideoxy chain termination method.Figure 8.13. Part of a microarray used to compare the transcriptome of two ...Figure 8.14. (a) Transgenic mouse carrying a foreign gene. (b) The metallot...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1. Channels form a tube open all the way across a membrane while c...Figure 9.2. The sodium/calcium exchanger undergoes more complicated shape c...Figure 9.3. Action of the sodium/calcium exchanger.Figure 9.4. The sodium/potassium ATPase undergoes a cycle of phosphorylatio...Figure 9.5. Action of the sodium/potassium ATPase.Figure 9.6. Action of the calcium ATPase.Figure 9.7. The resting voltage of (a) glial and (b) nerve cells.Figure 9.8. A nerve cell from the retina viewed with its nutritive capillar...Figure 9.9. The connections of a pain‐receptor nerve cell.Figure 9.10. One type of pain receptor has a distal terminal in the skin an...Figure 9.11. Electrical events in a pain‐receptor nerve cell.Figure 9.12. The voltage‐gated sodium channel.Figure 9.13. Frequency coding in the nervous system.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1. Calcium ions entering the cytosol from the extracellular mediu...Figure 10.2. Opening of ryanodine receptors allows calcium to flow out of t...Figure 10.3. Calcium activates multiple processes in a skeletal muscle cell...Figure 10.4. Nerve cell mitochondria take up calcium from the cytosol. Expe...Figure 10.5. The ionotropic glutamate receptor is an ion channel that opens...Figure 10.6. Opening of ionotropic glutamate receptors depolarizes the post...Figure 10.7. Spatial summation at a synapse.Figure 10.8. Temporal summation at a synapse.Figure 10.9. Inhibition by a GABAergic synapse.Figure 10.10. Motor neurons release the transmitter acetylcholine that bind...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1. CCK activates Gq and hence phospholipase Cβ in pancreatic aci...Figure 11.2. The inositol trisphosphate‐gated calcium channel releases cal...Figure 11.3. Scent‐sensitive nerve cells send axons to the brain.Figure 11.4. Scent chemicals activate Gs and hence adenylate cyclase in sc...Figure 11.5. The PDGF receptor, like other growth factor receptors, activa...Figure 11.6. Amino acid residues adjacent to phosphotyrosine recruit speci...Figure 11.7. The PDGF receptor, like other growth factor receptors, phosph...Figure 11.8. The insulin receptor phosphorylates and hence activates PI 3‐...Figure 11.9. PIP₃ recruits Akt (protein kinase B) to the plasma membrane w...Figure 11.10. Signaling from type 1 cytokine receptors.Figure 11.11. The Wnt signaling pathway.Figure 11.12. The HIF signaling pathway.Figure 11.13. Interactions of signaling pathways.Figure 11.14. Transmitters regulate the blood supply to muscles.Figure 11.15. Noradrenaline activates G_q and hence phospholipase C_β i...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 The three modes of intracellular protein transport.Figure 12.2. Vesicle fission and fusion.Figure 12.3. Generation of membrane buds by (a) coatomers and (b) clathrin....Figure 12.4. SNAREs and vesicle fusion.Figure 12.5. Transport of a growing protein across the membrane of the endo...Figure 12.6. The Golgi apparatus.Figure 12.7. Presentation of peptides by MHC proteins.Figure 12.8. Targeting of protein to the lysosome.Figure 12.9. Autophagy allows cells to digest their own components.Figure 12.10. The nuclear pore.Figure 12.11. Ran GEF and GAP are localized to the nucleoplasm and cytosol,...Figure 12.12. Nuclear import.Figure 12.13. Nuclear export.

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1. Typical spatial organization of microtubules, stress fibers (o...Figure 13.2. Microtubule structure.Figure 13.3. The microtubule organizing center or centrosome consists of am...Figure 13.4. Microtubules show dynamic instability.Figure 13.5. Microfilaments and microtubules in fibroblasts grown in cultur...Figure 13.6. Effects of taxol and colchicine on microtubules.Figure 13.7. Axonal transport.Figure 13.8. Dynein traffics the Golgi toward microtubule ends to position ...Figure 13.9. How cilia and flagella bend.Figure 13.10. Cilia and flagella have identical structures.Figure 13.11. Actin polymerization is regulated by actin‐binding proteins....Figure 13.12. Integrins anchor the actin cytoskeleton to the extracellular ...Figure 13.13. Muscle contraction.Figure 13.14. Mesenchymal cell migration depends upon actin microfilaments ...Figure 13.15. Intermediate filaments are formed from rod‐shaped monomers.Figure 13.16. Anchoring junctions attach the cytoskeletons of adjacent cell...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1. The cell division cycle.Figure 14.2. The stages of mitosis.Figure 14.3. Mitosis in cultured breast cancer cells. The upper cell is in ...Figure 14.4. Activation of the anaphase‐promoting complex and the breakdown...Figure 14.5. The four stages of cytokinesis in animal cells.Figure 14.6. CDK activities through the cell cycle.Figure 14.7. How CDK1 is controlled by cyclin B and phosphorylation in mult...Figure 14.8. Retinoblastoma protein Rb sequesters E2F, the critical transcr...Figure 14.9. ATM activation stops the cell cycle.Figure 14.10. Stages of meiosis.Figure 14.11. Meiosis and fertilization.Figure 14.12. Chiasmata allow the crossing over of genetic material during ...Figure 14.13. The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways for activating apoptosis...Figure 14.14. A green fluorescent protein chimera revels cytochrome c trans...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1. Sodium, chloride, and water transport in the sweat gland.Figure 15.2. The transepithelial voltage of CF sweat glands is much more ne...Figure 15.3. The CFTR is a chloride channel gated by phosphorylation and AT...Figure 15.4. The mutation seen in 70% of CF patients: a deletion of three n...Figure 15.5. Ivacaftor causes CFTR to open even in class III mutants such a...Figure 15.6. A diagnostic test for the most common CFTR gene mutation.