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Such was this race, the last born of the sister races, which, in the decay of the other two, the Latin and the Greek, brings to the world a new civilization, with a new character and genius. Inferior to these in many respects, it surpasses them in not a few. Amidst the woods and mire and snows, under a sad, inclement sky, gross instincts have gained the day during this long barbarism. The German has not acquired gay humor, unreserved facility, the feeling for harmonious beauty; his great phlegmatic body continues savage and stiff, greedy and brutal; his rude and unpliable mind is still inclined to savagery, and restive under culture. Dull and congealed, his ideas cannot expand with facility and freedom, with a natural sequence and an instinctive regularity. But this spirit, void of the sentiment of the beautiful, is all the more apt for the sentiment of the true. The deep and incisive impression which he receives from contact with objects, and which as yet he can only express by a cry, will afterwards liberate him from the Latin rhetoric, and will vent itself on things rather than on words. Moreover, under the constraint of climate and solitude, by the habit of resistance and effort, his ideal is changed. Manly and moral instincts have gained the empire over him; and amongst them the need of independence, the disposition for serious and strict manners, the inclination for devotion and veneration, the worship of heroism. Here are the foundations and the elements of a civilization, slower but sounder, less careful of what is agreeable and elegant, more based on justice and truth.[94] Hitherto at least the race is intact, intact in its primitive coarseness; the Roman cultivation could neither develop nor deform it. If Christianity took root, it was owing to natural affinities, but it produced no change in the native genius. Now approaches a new conquest, which is to bring this time men, as well as ideas. The Saxons, meanwhile, after the wont of German races, vigorous and fertile, have within the past six centuries multiplied enormously. They were now about two millions, and the Norman army numbered sixty thousand.[95] In vain these Normans become transformed, gallicized; by their origin, and substantially in themselves they are still the relatives of those whom they conquered. In vain they imported their manners and their poesy, and introduced into the language a third part of its words; this language continues altogether German in element and in substance.[96] Though the grammar changed, it changed integrally, by an internal action, in the same sense as its continental cognates. At the end of three hundred years the conquerors themselves were conquered; their speech became English; and owing to frequent intermarriage, the English blood ended by gaining the predominance over the Norman blood in their veins. The race finally remains Saxon. If the old poetic genius disappears after the Conquest, it is as a river disappears, and flows for a while underground. In five centuries it will emerge once more.

[8]Malte-Brun, IV. 398. Not counting bays, gulfs, and canals, the sixteenth part of the country is covered by water. The dialect of Jutland bears still a great resemblance to English.

[9]See Ruysdaal's painting in Mr. Baring's collection. Of the three Saxon islands, North Strandt, Busen, and Heligoland, North Strandt was inundated by the sea in 1300, 1483, 1532, 1615, and almost destroyed in 1634. Busen is a level plain, beaten by storms, which it has been found necessary to surround by a dyke. Heligoland was laid waste by the sea in 800, 1300, 1500, 1649, the last time so violently that only a portion of it remained.—Turner, "History of Anglo-Saxons," 1852, I. 97.

[10]Heine, "The North Sea," translated by Charles G. Leland. See Tacitus, "Annals," book 2, for the impressions of the Romans, "truculentia cœli."

[11]Watten, Platen, Sande, Düneninseln.

[12]Nine or ten miles out near Heligoland, are the nearest soundings of about fifty fathoms.

[13]Palgrave, "Saxon Commonwealth," vol. I.

[14]"Notes of a Journey in England."

[15]Léonce de Lavergne, "De l'Agriculture anglaise." "The soil is much worse than that of France."

[16]There are at least four rivers in England passing by the name of "Ouse," which is only another form of "ooze."—Tr.

[17]Tacitus, "De moribus Germanorum," passim: Diem noctemque continuare potando, nulli proborum.—Sera juvenum Venus.—Totos dies juxta focum atque ignem agunt. Dargaud, "Voyage en Danemark. They take six meals per day, the first at five o'clock in the morning. One should see the faces and meals at Hamburg and at Amsterdam."

[18]Bede, v. 10. Sidonius, VIII. 6. Lingard, "History of England," 1854, I. chap. 2.

[19]Zozimos, III. 147. Amm. Marcellinus, XXVIII. 526.

[20]Aug. Thierry, "Hist. S. Edmundi," VI. 441. See Ynglingasaga, and especially Egil's Saga.

[21]Lingard, "History of England," I. 164, says, however, "Every tenth man out of the six hundred received his liberty, and of the rest a few were selected for slavery."—Tr.

[22]Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Danes, up the gaps that exist in the history of Norwegians, Icelanders are one and the same people. Their language, laws, religion, poetry, differ but little. The more northern continue longest in their primitive manners. Germany in the fourth and fifth centuries, Denmark and Norway in the seventh and eighth. Iceland in the tenth and eleventh centuries, present the same condition, and the muniments of each country will fill up the gaps that exist in the history of the others.

[23]Tacitus, De moribus Germanotum, XXII: Gens nec astuta nec callida.

[24]William of Malmesbury. Henry of Huntingdon, VI. 365.

[25]Tacitus, "De moribus Germanorum," XXII, XXIII.

[26]Kemble, "Saxons in England," 1849, I. 70, II. 184. "The Acts of an Anglo-Saxon parliament are a series of treaties of peace between all the associations which make up the State; a continual revision and renewal of the alliances offensive and defensive of all the free men. They are universally mutual contracts for the maintenance of the frid or peace."

[27]A large district; the word is still existing in German, as Rheingau, Breiasgau.—Tr.

[28]Turner, "History of the Anglo-Saxons," II. 440, Laws of Ina.

[29]Such a band consisted of thirty-five men or more.

[30]Milton's expression. Lingard's History, I. chap. 3. This history bears much resemblance to that of the Franks in Gaul. See Gregory of Tours. The Saxons, like the Franks, somewhat softened, but rather degenerated, were pillaged and massacred by those of their Northern brothers who still remained in a savage state.

[31]Vita S. Dunstani, "Anglia Sacra," II.

[32]It is amusing to compare the story of Edwy and Elgiva in Turner, II. 216, etc., and then Lingard, I. 132, etc. The first accuses Dunstan, the other defends him.—Tr.

[33]"Life of Bishop Wolstan."

[34]Tantæ sævitiæ erant fratres illi quod, cum alicujus nitidam villam conspicerent, dominatorem de nocte interfici juberent, totamque progeniem illius possessionemque defuncti obtinerent. Turner, III. 27. Henry of Huntingdon, VI. 367.

[35]"Pene gigas statura," says the chronicler. Henry of Huntingdon, VI. 367. Kemble, I. 393. Turner, II. 318.

[36]Grimm, "Mythology," 53, Preface.

[37]Tacitus, XX. XXIII., XI., XII. et passim. We may still see the traces of this taste in English dwellings.

[38]Ibid. XIII.

[39]Tacitus, XIX., VIII., XVI. Kemble, I. 232.

[40]Tacitus, XIV.

[41]"In omni domo, nudi et sordidi... Plus per otium transigunt, dediti somno, ciboque, otos dies juxta focum atque ignem agunt."

[42]Grimm, 53, Preface. Tacitus, X.

[43]"Deorum nominibus appellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia vident." Later on, at Upsala for instance, they had images (Adam of Bremen, "Historia Ecclesiastica"). Wuotan (Odin), signifies etymologically the All-Powerful, him who penetrates and circulates through everything (Grimm, "Mythology").

[44]"Sæmundar Edda, Snorra Edda," ed. Copenhagen, three vols., passim. Mr. Bergmann has translated several of these poems into French, which Mr. Taine quotes. The translator has generally made use of the edition of Mr. Thorpe, London, 1866.

[45]Hel, the goddess of death, born of Loki and Angrboda.—Tr.

[46]Thorpe, "The Edda of Sæmund, the Vala's Prophecy," str. 48-56, p. 9 et passim.

[47]"Fafnismâl Edda." This epic is common to the Northern races, as is the Iliad to the Greek populations, and is found almost entire in Germany in the Nibelungen Lied. The translator has also used Magnusson and Morris's poetical version of the "Völsunga Saga," and certain songs of the "Elder Edda," London, 1870.

[48]"Thorpe, The Edda of Sæmund, Third Lay of Sigurd Fafnicide," str. 62-64, p. 83.

[49]Magnusson and Morris, "Story of the Volsungs and Nibelungs, Lamentation of Guaran," p. 118 et passim.

[50]Thorpe, "The Edda of Sæmund, Lay of Atli," str. 21-27, p. 117.

[51]Ibid., str. 38, p. 119.

[52]This word signifies men who fought without a breastplate, perhaps in shirts only; Scottice, "Baresarks."—Tr.

[53]See the "Life of Sweyn," of Hereward, etc., even up to the time of the Conquest.

[54]Beowulf, passim. Death of Byrhtnoth.

[55]"The Wanderer, the Exile's Song, Codex Exoniensis," published by Thorpe.

[56]Turner, "History of the Anglo-saxons", III. 63.

[57]Alfred borrows his portrait from Boethius, but almost entirely rewrites it.

[58]Kemble thinks that the origin of this poem is very ancient, perhaps contemporary with the invasion of the Angles and Saxons, but that the version we possess is later than the seventh century.—Kemble's "Beowulf," text and translation, 1833. The characters are Danish.

[59]Kemble's "Beowulf," XI. p. 32.

[60]Ibid. XII. p. 34.

[61]"Beowulf," XXII., XXIII. p. 62 et passim.

[62]"Beowulf," XXXIII., XXXVI. p. 94 et passim.

[63]Ibid, XXXVII., XXXVIII. p. 110 et passim. I have throughout always used the very words of Kemble's translation.—Tr.

[64]Conybeare's "Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry," 1826, "Battle of Finsborough," p. 175. The complete collection of Anglo-Saxon poetry has been published by M. Grein.

[65]Turner, "History of Anglo-Saxons," III. book 9, ch. I. p. 245.

[66]The cleverest Anglo-Saxon scholars, Turner, Conybeare, Thorpe, recognize this difficulty.

[67]Turner, III. 231 et passim. The translations in French, however literal, do injustice to the text; that language is too clear, too logical. No Frenchman can understand this extraordinary phase of intellect, except by taking a dictionary, and deciphering some pages of Anglo-Saxon for a fortnight.

[68]Turner remarks that the same idea expressed by King Alfred, in prose and then in verse takes in the first case seven words, in the second five.—"History of the Anglo-Saxons," III. 235.

[69]596-625. Aug. Thierry, I. 81; Bede, XII. 2.]

[70]Jouffroy, "Problem of Human Destiny."

[71]Michelet, preface to "La Renaissance"; Didron, "Histoire de Dieu."

[72]About 630. See "Codex Exoniensis," Thorpe.

[73]Bede, IV. 24.

[74]Conybeare's "Illustrations," p. 271.

[75]Bretwalda was a species of warking, or temporary and elective chief of all the Saxons.—Tr.

[76]The Æsir (sing. As) are the gods of the Scandinavian nations, of whom Odin was the chief.—Tr.]

[77]Kemble, I. I. XII. In this chapter he has collected many features which show the endurance of the ancient mythology.

[78]Nástrand is the strand or shore of the dead.—Tr.

[79]Turner, "History of Anglo-Saxons," III. book 9, ch. 3, p. 271.

[80]Ibid. III. book o, ch. 3, p. 272.

[81]Turner, "History of Anglo-Saxons," III. book 9, ch. 3, p. 274.

[82]Grein, "Bibliothek der Angelsæchsischen poesie."

[83]Thorpe, "Cædmon," 1832, XLVII. p. 206.

[84]Ibid. II. p. 7. A likeness exists between this song and corresponding portions of the Edda.

[85]Ibid. IV. p. 18.

[86]This is Milton's opening also. (See "Paradise Lost," book I. verse 242, etc.) One would think that he must have had some knowledge of Cædmon from the translation of Junius.

[87]Thorpe, "Cædmon," IV. p. 23.

[88]They themselves feel their impotence and decrepitude. Bede, dividing the history of the world into six periods, says that the fifth, which stretches from the return out of Babylon to the birth of Christ, is the senile period; the sixth is the present, "ætas decrepita, totius morte sæculi consummanda."

[89]Died in 901; Adhelm died 709, Bede died 735, Alcuin lived under Charlemagne, Erigena under Charles the Bald (843-877).

[90]Fox's "Alfred's Boethius," chap. 35, sec. 6, 1864.

[91]All these extracts are taken from Ingram's "Saxon Chronicle," 1823.

[92]William of Malmesbury's expression.

[93]Primitus (pantorum procerum prætorumque pio potissimum paternoque præsertim privilegio) panegyricum poemataque passim prosatori sub polo promulgantes, stridula vocum symphonia ac melodiæ cantilenæque carmine modulaturi hymnizemus.

[94]In Iceland, the country of the fiercest sea-kings, crimes are unknown; prisons have been turned to other uses; fines are the only punishment.

[95]Following Doomsday Book, Mr. Turner reckons at three hundred thousand the heads of families mentioned. If each family consisted of five persons, that would make one million five hundred thousand people. He adds five hundred thousand for the four northern counties, for London and several large towns, for the monks and provincial clergy not enumerated.... We must accept these figures with caution. Still they agree with those of Mackintosh, George Chalmers, and several others. Many facts show that the Saxon population was very numerous, and quite out of proportion to the Norman population.

[96]Warton, "History of English Poetry," 1840, 3 vols., Preface.