Читать книгу Lifespan Development - Tara L. Kuther - Страница 319

Researchers have observed consistent cultural differences in temperament that are rooted in cultural norms for how individuals are perceived. Japanese mothers, for example, view their infants as interdependent beings who must learn the importance of relationships and connections with others (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000). North American mothers, on the other hand, view their task as shaping babies into autonomous beings (Kojima, 1986). Whereas Japanese mothers tend to interact with their babies in soothing ways, discouraging strong emotions, North American mothers are active and stimulating (Rothbaum et al., 2000). Differences in temperament result, such that Japanese infants tend to be more passive, less irritable and vocal, and more easily soothed when upset than North American infants (Kojima, 1986; Lewis, Ramsay, & Kawakami, 1993; Rothbaum et al., 2000). Culture influences the behaviors that parents view as desirable and the means that parents use to socialize their infants (Chen & Schmidt, 2015; Kagan, 2013). Culture, therefore, plays a role in how emotional development—in this case, temperament—unfolds.

Asian cultures often prioritize low arousal and emotionality and socialize infants in line with these values. Chinese American, Japanese American, and Hmong children tend to display lower levels of irritability, exhibit less physical activity, and engage in more self-quieting and self-control than do European American children (Friedlmeier, Çorapçi, & Benga, 2015; Super & Harkness, 2010). Similarly, a recent comparison of toddlers from Chile, South Korea, Poland, and the United States showed that the South Korean toddlers scored highest on measures of control (Krassner et al., 2016).

If infants from Asian cultures engage in more self-soothing, are they more temperamentally resistant to stress? One study examined levels of the hormone cortisol in infants receiving an inoculation (Lewis et al., 1993). Cortisol, which is released as part of the fight-or-flight response, is often used as a marker of stress. Four-month-old Japanese infants showed a pronounced cortisol response, suggesting that they were experiencing great stress, coupled with little crying. The U.S. infants, on the other hand, displayed intense behavioral reactions to the pain and took longer to calm down, yet they displayed a lower cortisol response. In other words, although the Japanese babies appeared quiet and calm, they were more physiologically stressed than the U.S. infants. It seems that cultural views of the nature of arousal and emotional regulation influence parenting behaviors and ultimately infants’ responses to stressors (Friedlmeier et al., 2015).

Culture plays a role in emotional development. Japanese mothers tend to encourage their infants to develop close ties and depend on their assistance whereas North American mothers tend to emphasize autonomy.

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In summary, we have seen that the cultures in which we are immersed influence how we interpret stimuli and respond to the world, including how we manifest stress. Culture also influences attachment.