Читать книгу Lifespan Development - Tara L. Kuther - Страница 327

Secure parent–child attachments are associated with positive socioemotional development in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Preschool and school-age children who were securely attached as infants tend to be more curious, empathetic, self-confident, and socially competent, and they will have more positive interactions and close friendships with peers (Groh, Fearon, van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Roisman, 2017; Veríssimo, Santos, Fernandes, Shin, & Vaughn, 2014). The advantages of secure attachment continue into adolescence. Adolescents who were securely attached in infancy and early childhood are more socially competent, tend to be better at making and keeping friends and functioning in a social group, and demonstrate greater emotional health, self-esteem, ego resiliency, and peer competence (Boldt, Kochanska, Yoon, & Koenig Nordling, 2014; Sroufe, 2016; Stern & Cassidy, 2018).

In contrast, insecure attachment in infancy, particularly disorganized attachment, is associated with long-term negative outcomes, including poor peer relationships, poor social competence, and higher rates of antisocial behavior, depression, and anxiety from childhood into adulthood (Groh et al., 2017; Kochanska & Kim, 2013; Wolke, Eryigit-Madzwamuse, & Gutbrod, 2014). Insecure attachments tend to correlate with difficult life circumstances and contexts, such as parental problems, low socioeconomic status (SES), and environmental stress, that persist throughout childhood and beyond, influencing the continuity of poor outcomes (Granqvist et al., 2017). One longitudinal study suggested that infants with an insecure disorganized attachment at 12 and 18 months of age were, as adults, more likely to have children with insecure disorganized attachment, suggesting the possibility of intergenerational transmission of insecure attachment (and associated negative outcomes) (Raby, Steele, Carlson, & Sroufe, 2015). Conversely, attachment is not set in stone. Quality parent–child interactions can at least partially make up for poor interactions early in life. Children with insecure attachments in infancy who experience subsequent sensitive parenting show more positive social and behavioral outcomes in childhood and adolescence than do those who receive continuous care of poor quality (Sroufe, 2016). In addition, infants can form attachments to multiple caregivers with secure attachments, perhaps buffering the negative effects of insecure attachments (Boldt et al., 2014).