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ОглавлениеIntroduction and Navigation Guide
Author: V. Narayan
1.1 Authors’ Background
The school of hard knocks taught me most of the really useful things I learned about reliability and maintenance. I worked with many talented people during my career in industry, who were my best teachers. My co-author Mahen Das and I are both mechanical engineers and worked in a small petroleum refinery in the early stages of our careers. This company had a “can-do” attitude and dynamic culture. We could make occasional mistakes without fear of reprisal. Innovative ideas and creativity thrived at every level. Mahen and I took full advantage of this wonderful social laboratory. But, as the saying goes, all good things eventually come to an end. When this happened, we left the company within a week of each other and went our separate ways.
A few years later both of us happened to rejoin the parent company of this refinery in Europe. Some years later, both of us began working in their corporate headquarters. That was when we met Jim Wardhaugh, the third author of this book. Jim is an electrical engineer who worked in the power generation and distribution industry before coming to the oil and gas industry. The three of us got along brilliantly, and were members of the maintenance and reliability advisory team in the parent company.
The parent company had global operations in the upstream and downstream oil and gas business. It had responsibility for day-to-day management for many operating companies distributed around the world. Corporate headquarters provided technical support and governance. The parent company wholly owned or had a significant stake in the operating companies. In most cases, it was responsible for the design of the facilities in the operating company, as well as for commissioning and initial operations. The support included providing the operating companies with skilled staff and technical advice.
During the first few years of any new venture, key positions were held by staff assigned from the parent company. They were responsible for operating the facilities safely and efficiently. They also trained local employees to take over these positions within the first few years. Most of the assigned staff stayed in any one location for three-to-five years. Mahen, Jim, and I were among this group of gypsies working in different parts of the world. Later, during our tenure in the corporate headquarters, we traveled widely in a consulting role.
All three of us have worked in other industries, e.g., engineering, pharmaceuticals, textile machinery, chemicals, power distribution and manufacturing. Some of the events described in this book are from these industries. Together, the three of us have more than 100 years of experience in this field—which explains the title of the book.
1.2 Impetus for this Book
Books dealing with maintenance subjects seem to focus on answering these questions: What should be done? How should it be done? And sometimes, when or why should it be done? Books on reliability seem to focus on mathematical aspects; the average maintenance manager or supervisor finds it hard to relate their content to the reality they face in their work.
We decided we would write about learning experiences from our working lives. We describe the hand we were dealt and how our team handled the situation in those circumstances. In hindsight, we found some underlying truths or principles in these experiences which we believe may be applicable in other situations. Based on these descriptions, readers can decide whether they should consider a different approach from the ones they currently follow.
1.3 The Shewhart Cycle
Edward Demingi describes Shewhart’s continuous improvement cycle with the Plan-Do-Check-Act sequence. We use an adaptation of this, with the Plan, Schedule, Execute, and Analyze phases, shown in Figure 1.1. We have grouped our chapters under these four headings. Although some of the chapters could be placed under two or more headings, we chose the heading that seemed appropriate from our perspective. To these four, we added two more headings: Leadership and People. The subjects covered in the various chapters fall under one of these six headings. We hope that the grouping helps readers to find what they are looking for easily.
1.4 Chapter Contents
In each chapter, we describe an event or situation that one of us experienced personally. We have tried to relate the events factually, at least as far as we could remember them. In order to protect the identities of those involved, we have not revealed the names of the locations or of the individuals. The key issues are 1) how the people involved handled the event and 2) the results or outcome of their effort. We have summarized our own learning from each situation. We also included underlying principles we feel are relevant: these are stated at the end of each chapter.
Figure 1.1 Continuous Improvement Cycle
At the time of the events described in the book, we did not know many of the relevant underlying theories or philosophies. We picked up most of the concepts subsequently, sometimes many years later. Had we known them at the time, we may have found the solutions with less effort. For the benefit of readers who may need them, we have described the relevant theory or methodology in appendices.
1.5 Locations
We have, between the three of us, worked in about 20 locations. In a consulting role, we have advised at least 30 locations around the world. Each site had its own way of doing things. So that readers can appreciate the different pressures the locations faced, we have provided an overview in Chapter 2. Because there may be more than one chapter about a given location, some of the common information is described in this chapter. Hopefully, this will avoid needless repetition, but it does mean that before reading a chapter, readers may have to go back to Chapter 2 to get the overview.
Where relevant, we have given some information about the cultural and social climate that prevailed in that location. So that the events described are placed in context, we have provided additional background material at the beginning of each chapter.
1.6 Glossary, Acronyms and Abbreviations
Please refer to these if certain words or acronyms are not clear.
1.7 Acknowledgements
I had the pleasure of meeting Charles Latino in Chicago at the Maintenance and Reliability Technology Summit in 2005. Charles is a well-known reliability and maintenance guru, and I was thrilled to listen to his brilliant lecture. I knew his son Bob Latino through a web site forum in which we both participate, and from his excellent book Root Cause Analysisii. Hearing Charles’ talk spawned the idea for this book. I consider it a great honor that he has written the foreword.
A former fellow student and friend from my University days, Satish Shirke, agreed to do the illustrations for the book. Satish lives in California, but we managed the trans-Atlantic communications quite well. He did a great job, but because of his workload, he could not continue. I was in a spot, desperately seeking a good illustrator to replace Satish. When Steven van Els, based in Suriname in South America, offered to help, I was delighted. I ‘met’ Steven on the reliability.com web site and have a great deal of respect for his knowledge and experience. Steven has done an absolutely superb job, converting our crude sketches and charts into excellent figures or tables. He also added value by creating drawings to illustrate the text at his own initiative. As a real world practicing maintenance manager, his comments on the chapters were invaluable. My friend Narmada Guruswamy helped design the cover pages separating the six main parts of the book.
The International Labour Office in Geneva gave us permission to use two tables and three charts from an excellent reference book entitled Introduction to Work Studyiii published by them. Mr. Peter Morgon of Lithgow & Associates and MPI Publications, publishers of Fitz’s Atlasiv, very kindly agreed to our reproducing graphical coating breakdown standards from their book.
Earlier I have had the pleasure of working with the team from Industrial Press Inc., the publishers of this book. Janet Romano designed the cover and provided much needed support with the publication and printing, and Suzanne Remore kept us on our toes in meeting schedules. Patrick Hansard is a pleasure to work with and a great person to handle sales and marketing. I have known John Carleo, the Director of Publications, for over three years. He has been a friend, philosopher and guide, and an enthusiastic supporter. In practical terms, this meant fast responses to my queries and requests, and guidance in all aspects of publication.
Christine Wardhaugh, Madhu Das, and my wife Lata have been ever so patient and tolerant with the three of us. Both Christine and Madhu accused me of being a slave driver. Lata came to my support, saying I was both a slave and a slave driver!
Mahen, Jim, and I are grateful to all of these wonderful people.
References
| i | Deming, W. Edwards. 2000. Out of Crisis. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN:026 254 1157. |
| ii | Latino, R.J. and K.Latino. 2002. Root Cause Analysis: Improving Performance for Bottom-Line Results. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN: 084 931 318X. |
| iii | Kanawaty, G., ed. 1992. Introduction to Work Study. 4th (revised) ed. Geneva: ILO Publications. ISBN: 92-2-107108-1. |
| iv | Weatherhead, Roger and Peter Morgan, Lithgow & Associates, ed. Fitz’s Atlas™ of Coating Defects. Surrey: MPI Publications. ISBN: 0 9513940 2 9. URL: http://www.mpigroup.co.uk/fitzs-atlas.asp |
Author: V. Narayan
We, the three authors—Jim Wardhaugh, Mahen Das, and Vee Narayan—have worked in a number of locations around the world. In this chapter, we will describe each location briefly so that you have an overview of the sites and get an idea of the facilities and prevailing culture. In the chapters that follow, we will refer to these locations by their reference number. Please see the relevant section here before proceeding to the chapter you wish to read.
2.1 Locations in the Middle East and South Asia
2.1.1 Facility: Pharmaceutical Plant
This small company made a range of over-the-counter drugs. The main products were throat lozenges, pain-relief balms, and tablets for relief from colds and headaches. They also produced menthol crystals from oil extracted from the menthol plant.
The facilities included ointment blending vessels, tablet forming, coating and packaging machines, bottling machines, packaging lines, and a refrigeration plant. The research and development facilities were located at the factory site; this group was also responsible for product quality management.
2.1.2 Facility: Automobile Parts Manufacturer
This large company made fuel injection pumps for diesel engines and spark plugs for petrol engines. The factory had about 3000 machine tools, many of which were of high precision and cost. They had a European principal who provided technical expertise and governance. The principal operated similar factories in five other countries. In this site, they had about 8000 employees, working six days a week. About 2500 production staff, mainly machinists, worked in each of the first and second shifts. About 1500 production staff worked in the third shift. There were about 1500 employees in the ‘day’ shift. Company employees had a strong work ethic; people were disciplined, kept to schedules, and worked to high quality standards.
2.1.3 Facility: Petroleum Refinery
This facility was a semi-complex petroleum refinery, with process plants, utilities, product packaging, and storage facilities. The process plants were grouped into two main sections. The primary processing units included crude distillation, high-vacuum distillation, and bitumen blowing units. The secondary processing plants consisted of a fluid catalytic cracker and a reformer (or platformer) unit, grouped with the utilities.
There were two other operational sections, responsible for the storage and handling of crude oil and products. One of them managed bitumen and liquefied petroleum gas storage, packaging, handling, and dispatch. Another managed the storage and handling of crude oil and products. The maintenance areas were aligned to these sections, with a supervisor in charge of each area.
Breakdowns and trips of equipment were common, resulting in excessive downtime and costs. Maintenance in the refinery had become a firefighting activity. Craftsmen were constantly being moved from job to job, resulting in low productivity and quality. As a result, morale was low, both in Maintenance and in Operations.
2.1.4 Facility: A Large Petroleum Refinery
At the time of the events described in this book, this refinery was fairly new. Two large distillation units and a high vacuum unit provided primary distillation capacity. Secondary processing included thermal and hydro-cracking units. There was a large benzene unit and hydro-treaters for kerosene, naphtha, and gas-oil. Electricity, potable water, and sea cooling water were provided by public utility companies. Product-to-feed heat exchangers and air-cooled heat exchangers were used for cooling, with some limited final cooling with sea water exchangers.
Most of the maintenance work was reactive, but the condition monitoring program and minor preventive maintenance work (lubrication, alignment checks, etc.) were planned and executed satisfactorily. Local craftsmen were being trained, and the bulk of the maintenance work was done by expatriate contract workers. Skill levels were reasonable, but the company’s approach was that it was employing ‘hands’ not people who could use their brains as well. Some of the (expatriate) supervisors were very good, but most were of average caliber.
2.2 Locations in East Asia
2.2.1 Facility: Liquefied Natural Gas Plant
This Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plant was located on the coast. There were three production modules, where the natural gas was compressed and cooled, thereby liquefying it at -260°F. Steam turbines, each 9 MW in size, powered the nine refrigeration compressors. The plant generated its own electricity, using gas turbine and steam turbine driven alternators. Steam, at 60 bar gauge (barg.), was raised in 9 boilers. There were two liquid nitrogen generators to produce the nitrogen required for blanketing and as purging medium. The LNG was stored in double-walled cryogenic (extra low temperature) tanks. Dedicated LNG Tankers carried the cargo to the customers, from a company-owned deep-water jetty. The natural gas vapors, formed by evaporation from the storage tanks and by displacement from the tankers, were collected and compressed for use in the boilers and gas turbines.
Cryogenic plants require special materials of construction because low-carbon or low-alloy steels are prone to brittle fracture at low temperatures. The main materials used include aluminum and austenitic stainless steels. Aluminum is a difficult metal to weld and needs specially qualified welders and welding processes.
Most of the local people employed in the plant were middle-school or high-school graduates. They were young and enthusiastic, but with little exposure to heavy industrial or high hazard plants. Although expatriates held most of the senior technical positions, local engineering graduates were placed in supporting roles so that they could take over senior positions quickly.
2.2.2 Facility: Large Complex Oil Refinery
The refinery intake was about 14 million tons per year, received mainly by ships tethered to a single buoy mooring. The main units of this large refinery were: three crude distillation units, two reformers, a lubricating-oil (lube-oil) complex, a thermal gas-oil unit, a hydro-cracker, a long residue catalytic cracker, an isopropyl alcohol plant, and a large generation and utilities complex. There were a number of other smaller processing units and a large oil-movements area consisting of tanks, blending, and a pipeline operation. Operations were controlled from a number of control rooms. Waterfront operations moved thirty million tons per year of product over 11 wharves with 3,500 shipping movements. The facilities described above varied in age from the geriatric to brand new and had a replacement value of about US $4 billion.
About 600 people lived on the refinery site and another 2,000 came to the refinery each day.
The organization was as traditional as you could get with Operations, Technology, Finance, Personnel, and Engineering Managers. Under the Engineering Manager were discipline heads for Mechanical, Electrical, Projects, etc. Expatriates held a number of key positions, but most positions were filled by very competent local staff.
The refinery was well run and profitable but significantly overstaffed. Benchmarking studies showed there were areas of superior performance with excellent practices that others could copy to their benefit. However, they also showed that this refinery was, at best, an average performer and hadn’t moved with the times. Reliability, manning levels, and operating costs needed attention.
2.2.3 Facility: New Medium-Sized Complex Oil Refinery
This was a brand new joint venture; an 8-million-tons-per-year refinery situated on the coast and designed to process a mix of Middle East crude oils (by ship, over a single buoy mooring loading facility) as well as indigenous crude oils over jetties. The main plants included atmospheric and vacuum distillation units, hydro-cracker, visbreaker, hydro-desulfurizing unit, hydro-treater, and a reformer (platformer). The electrical power generation capacity met internal requirements fully. Similarly, there was capacity to produce other utilities. Thus, the refinery could operate effectively on a stand-alone basis, although it was connected to the local electrical grid.
The refinery was designed to perform at world class standards in e.g., process efficiency, plant availability, utilization, organization style, manning levels, safety, environmental impact, and overall costs.
The management structure was traditional with Operations, Engineering, Finance, and Personnel functions. Maintenance engineers and technicians provided the core expertise at the working level. The philosophy adopted in recruiting staff was, however, definitely non-traditional. Plant operators were recruited from a craft background and then further trained in a specific craft skill, e.g., mechanical, instruments, or electrical. These operators then spent two thirds of their time in operations and one third in maintenance. During the latter period, they did the bulk of the maintenance work while specialized technicians provided the high-level competencies. A competence framework helped manage the concept, rewarding acquisition of needed skills.
2.2.4 Facility: A Medium-Sized Simple Petroleum Refinery
Commissioned in the late 1960s, this was a medium-sized, simple (hydro-skimming) refinery. Together with primary distillation capability, it had a platinum reforming unit to obtain high octane naphtha and hydrogen for its hydro-treating processes. A short period before the events described in this book, a refrigerated liquefied petroleum gas storage and export facility had been constructed and added to the refinery assets. As the country has very high literacy, the refinery had a well-educated work force. Traditionally, the population is highly skilled in crafts and people are proud of their handiwork. The value system also includes respect for elders, obedience to authority, and help and support to one another within the community.
2.2.5 Facility: A Regional Oil Company Operating Refineries and Downstream Operations
The company operated four refineries located in various parts of the country as well as a national marketing network. All refineries processed imported crude oil. The refineries ranged from medium–sized, semi-complex to large complex units. Between them, they had a full range of petroleum refining process plants, with sophisticated, state-of-the-art process control systems. Although the region was technologically very advanced, they did not apply sophisticated computerized methods to refinery maintenance. The refineries functioned with very hierarchical organizations in which communication was strictly via the official chain of command.
2.3 Locations in Europe
2.3.1 Facility: A Large Petroleum Refinery
This very large refinery was located on the coast. It was a ‘swing’ refinery, processing several types of crude oil. Because it had many process plants, there were a number of plant shutdowns every year. In this facility, they did a number of things very well, and others learned from them. Staff were disciplined and generally performed competently. Their technical knowledge base was excellent, but typical large facility silos had developed, leading to indifferent business performance. In benchmarking studies, they came out about average.
The refinery was located in an industrial belt, along with a number of other large chemical plants, refineries, and manufacturing facilities. All the companies used contractors extensively for shutdown work. Most of the shutdowns were scheduled in the April-October period, avoiding the cold weather as far as possible. Contractor manpower requirements peaked significantly during these periods. Inter-company agreements were in place to minimize bunching, which could result in dilution of skills.
2.3.2 Facility: Large Oil and Gas Production Company
The company carried out Exploration and Production (E&P) of hydrocarbon oil and gas. It was one of many companies in a large multi-national oil and gas group of companies.
The facility had several offshore oil and gas reservoirs. Some of these were exploited from fixed Platforms, others from Floating Production Storage and Offloading facilities (FPSOs). There were also a number of sub-sea installations feeding Platforms or FPSOs.
The company was innovative and used leading edge technology. It provided skilled staff on loan to other companies in the group.
It suffered from some of the large company problems. These included working in silos, optimizing things to benefit the department rather than the overall business, and slow speed of decision making.
2.3.3 Facility: Corporate Technical Headquarters
This facility was the technical headquarters of a very large multi-national oil and gas group of companies. From these offices, the corporate staff provided technical support to a large number of exploration and production facilities, refineries, gas plants, and chemical plants located around the world. A small maintenance and reliability team provided a benchmarking and consultancy service to the refineries and gas plants. The team identified maintenance best practices for sharing within the group to promote increased profitability and plant availability. They used written guidelines, newsletters, training courses, workshops, and conference events to transfer knowledge between locations. The three authors were founding members of a reliability improvement team, which worked with sites to promote performance improvements. This process proved to be very successful.
2.3.4 Facility: A Small Complex Oil Refinery
This was a small, rather aging asset onto which was being grafted some modern world-scale plants for product upgrading. It had the usual refinery plants of atmospheric and vacuum crude distillation and lubes along with thermal gas oil, reformer, hydro-cracker, catalytic cracker, bitumen, and a large electrical generation and utilities operation. There was a large tank farm, dated both in age and technology, with a fairly new blending facility and jetty area handling significant shipping movements.
Poor industrial relations with resistance to change sapped managerial energies. Outdated attitudes and work practices typified this location.
2.4 Location in Australasia
2.4.1 Facility: Medium-Sized Semi-Complex Petroleum Refinery
At the time of these events, this medium-sized, semi-complex refinery was owned as a joint venture by five partners who used it to process crude oil owned by them—either from their own fields or bought in the spot market.
The refinery was located in a breathtakingly beautiful natural environment. People there were very proud of this, and the quality of life it offered. Right from the time it was conceived, there was a strong lobby against its very existence due to the inherent potential threat to the pristine environment. In spite of the fact that it was always operated to the highest environmental standards in the world at that time, it was an eye sore in the perception of the local people.
2.5 Locations in Central and South America
2.5.1 Facility: Small Petroleum Refinery
This was a small and simple (hydro-skimming) refinery, containing plants for primary distillation, platinum reforming, and hydro-treating of naphtha, kerosene, and gas-oil. The refinery was wholly owned by a major multi-national oil company. It was one of the few technologically advanced industries in the country. For this reason and because it was also among the top quartile payers, it was one of the most sought after places of work. It attracted the best of the local people as employees who proved to be very loyal and were always willing to give their best to the company.
They had a very progressive management team, always on the look-out for improvements and trying to bring the best out of their individual staff. The staff responded enthusiastically to all the challenges put forth by their management.
