Читать книгу Handbook of Plastics Testing and Failure Analysis - Vishu Shah - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1‐1. Automated test setup.Figure 1‐2. Automated notcher.Figure 1‐3. Twin‐bore capillary rheometer.Figure 1‐4. Instrumented impact tester.Figure 1‐5. Outdoor weathering box.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2‐1. A typical stress–strain curve.Figure 2‐2. Extension types: (a) bond bending, (b) uncoiling, (c) slippage....Figure 2‐3. Maxwell model.Figure 2‐4. (a) Types of stress–strain curves.Figure 2‐5. Stress–strain curve in tension and compression.Figure 2‐6. Diagram illustrating creep and stress relaxation.Figure 2‐7. Diagram illustrating creep and cold flow.Figure 2‐8. Tensile testing machine.Figure 2‐9. Tensile test specimen (Type I).Figure 2‐10. (a) Diagram illustrating an extensiometer attached to the test ...Figure 2‐11. Diagram illustrating stress‐strain curve from which modulus and...Figure 2‐12. The effect of fiberglass orientation.Figure 2‐13. The effect of the strain rate on the modulus.Figure 2‐14. The effect of temperature on tensile strength.Figure 2‐15. Environmental test chamber to study the tensile properties at d...Figure 2‐16. Forces involved in bending a simple beam.Figure 2‐17. Close‐up of a specimen shown in flexural testing apparatus.Figure 2‐18. Schematic of specimen arrangement for flexural testing, (Method...Figure 2‐19 Universal testing machine for testing of the specimen in either ...Figure 2‐20. The effect of temperature on flexural modulus.Figure 2‐21. A typical test set‐up for compression testing.Figure 2‐22. Generalized creep curve.Figure 2‐23. Tensile creep curve.Figure 2‐24. Typical test set‐up for tensile creep testing.Figure 2‐25. Close‐up of creep rupture test under tensile load.Figure 2‐26. Percent creep strain versus time.Figure 2‐27. Creep modulus versus time on Cartesian coordinates.Figure 2‐28. Creep modulus versus time on logarithmic coordinates.Figure 2‐29. Creep strain versus time at 1000 hours.Figure 2‐30. Isochronous stress–strain curve.Figure 2‐31. Isochronous stress–strain curve for various materials.Figure 2‐32. Effect of stress on creep modulus.Figure 2‐33. Creep modulus versus time at different temperatures.Figure 2‐34. Creep and stress relaxation.Figure 2‐35. Stress–time curve.Figure 2‐36. Stress relaxation curve plotted at various levels of constant s...Figure 2‐37. (a) Common failure modes.(b) Typical velocities of some imp...Figure 2‐38. Pendulum impact tester.Figure 2‐39. Notching machine for impact test bars.Figure 2‐40. Izod impact test specimen properly positioned in test fixture....Figure 2‐41. Charpy test set‐up.Figure 2‐42. Chip impact test setup.Figure 2‐43. Diagram illustrating the principle of the chip impact test.Figure 2‐44. Schematic of specimen‐in‐head tensile‐impact machine.Figure 2‐45. Tensile impact tester.Figure 2‐46. Mold dimensions of types S and L tensile‐impact specimens.Figure 2‐47. Drop impact tester.Figure 2‐48. Falling dart impact tester.Figure 2‐49 Impact tester specifically designed for impact testing pipe and ...Figure 2‐50. Load–energy–time curve showing the effect of temperature.Figure 2‐51. Instrumented impact tester.Figure 2‐52. (a) Load–energy–time curve showing the effect of an impact on a...Figure 2‐53. Bottle drop impact tester.Figure 2‐54. Shear strength test setup.Figure 2‐55. Abrasion tester. (a) Rotary platform abrasion tester. (b) Linea...Figure 2‐56. Fatigue endurance (S–N) curve.Figure 2‐57. Flexural fatigue tester.Figure 2‐58. Dimensions of the constant force fatigue specimen.Figure 2‐59. Tensile fatigue testing machine.Figure 2‐60. Rockwell hardness tester.Figure 2‐61. Principle of the Rockwell hardness tester.Figure 2‐62. Durometer hardness tester.Figure 2‐63. Barcol hardness tester.

3 Chapter 3Figure 3‐1. Dtul/Vicat Tester.Figure 3‐2. (a) Vicat softening point apparatus. (b) HDT‐Vicat oil‐free test...Figure 3‐3. Torsion pendulum. Test equipment (schematic).Figure 3‐4. Dynamic mechanical properties by torsion pendulum versus tempera...Figure 3‐5. Plot of typical time–temperature data.Figure 3‐6. Typical UL yellow card.Figure 3‐7. Creep modulus versus temperature.Figure 3‐8. Creep rupture strength versus temperature.Figure 3‐9. Cross‐sectional view of the guarded hot plate.Figure 3‐10. Guarded not plate equipment.Figure 3‐11. Schematic configuration of a quartz‐tube dilatometer.Figure 3‐12. Typical specimen clamp for a brittleness temperature test.Figure 3‐13. Motor‐driven brittleness temperature tester.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4‐1. Dielectric strength test.Figure 4‐2. Schematic of the dielectric constant test.Figure 4‐3. Typical setup for the arc resistance test.Figure 4‐4. Test setup for the open field technique. (From EMI/RFI Shielding...Figure 4‐5. Shielded box technique. (From EMI/RFI Shielding Guide. Reprinted...Figure 4‐6. Test setup for the coaxial transmission line technique. (From EM...Figure 4‐7. Shielding room technique. (From EMI/RFI Shielding Guide. Reprint...Figure 4‐8. Point‐to‐point resistance measurement.Figure 4‐9. Adhesion testing.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5‐1. UV, light and condensation apparatus.Figure 5‐2. Cross‐section of a UV, light, and condensation apparatus.Figure 5‐3. Spectral energy distribution of sunlight and a fluorescent lamp....Figure 5‐4. Comparison between the energy output of a sunshine carbon‐arc la...Figure 5‐5. Comparison between the energy output of an enclosed carbon‐arc l...Figure 5‐6. Interior of a typical twin enclosed carbon‐arc apparatus.Figure 5‐7. Interior of a typical open flame carbon‐arc apparatusFigure 5‐8. Spectral power distribution comparison of a “daylight” filtered ...Figure 5‐9. Log‐scale spectral comparison of the critical low UV region betw...Figure 5‐10. Interior of a typical xenon‐arc apparatus.Figure 5‐11. (a) Water‐cooled xenon arc weathering instrument with a rotatin...Figure 5‐12. Comparison of a metal halide global lamp spectra to sunlight....Figure 5‐13. Large‐scale metal halide environmental chamber weathering instr...Figure 5‐14. Typical aluminum exposure racks.Figure 5‐15. Suitably mounted samples.Figure 5‐16. EMMAQUA Fresnel solar concentrators.Figure 5‐17. Ultra‐accelerated EMMA Fresnel solar concentrator device.

6 Chapter 6Figure 6‐1. Abbe refractometer.Figure 6‐2. Schematic of a hazemeter.Figure 6‐3. Hazemeter.Figure 6‐4. Plane polarized light.Figure 6‐5. Set‐up for examination of stress‐optical sensitivity.Figure 6‐6. Typical photoelastic pattern.Figure 6‐7. Light box for stress‐optical sensitivity examination.Figure 6‐8. (a) Commercially available video polarimeter. (b) Commercially a...Figure 6‐9. Hue value/chroma chart.Figure 6‐10. L, a, b, color space.Figure 6‐11. Colorimeter.Figure 6‐12. Spectrophotometer.Figure 6‐13. (a) A typical spectral reflectance curve. (b) A portable spectr...Figure 6‐14. Light booth for visual color evaluation.Figure 6‐15. Diagram of parallel beam glossmeter showing apertures and sourc...Figure 6‐16. Glossmeter.

7 Chapter 7Figure 7‐1. Schematic of melt indexer.Figure 7‐2 Melt indexer.Figure 7‐3 (a) A digital programmable viscometer. (b) Cone and plate viscome...Figure 7‐4 (a) A quality control graph of a polymer flow curve. (b) Apparent...Figure 7‐5 Capillary rheometer.Figure 7‐6 Shear stress versus shear rate curve for PVC with two different p...Figure 7‐7 Apparent viscosity versus apparent shear rate.Figure 7‐8 Capillary viscometers commonly used for measurement of polymer so...Figure 7‐9. Example of plot to determine intrinsic viscosity.Figure 7‐10 Molecular weight distribution curve for material. A represents “...Figure 7‐11. Schematic of a GPC system.Figure 7‐12. GPC equipment.Figure 7‐13. Molecules of various sizes elute from the column at different r...Figure 7‐14 A sample material GPC curve is compared with a control material ...Figure 7‐15. Thermal analysis of plastics.Figure 7‐16. (a) Two of the most common types of DSC measuring cells. (b) Di...Figure 7‐17. A typical DSC thermogram.Figure 7‐18. Thermogravimetric analysis instrument.Figure 7‐19 A typical TGA thermogram.Figure 7‐20 Testing by TMA (schematic).Figure 7‐21. A typical TMA thermal curve.Figure 7‐22. TMA instrument.Figure 7‐23. DMA instrument.Figure 7‐24 Sample spectrometer layout.Figure 7‐25. Sample analysis process.Figure 7‐26. Spectrometer.Figure 7‐27 Apparatus for an apparent density test.Figure 7‐28. Spiral flow test specimens.Figure 7‐29 Cup mold.Figure 7‐30 Bubble viscometers.Figure 7‐31. Gel time meter.

8 Chapter 8Figure 8‐1. Polymer combustion process.Figure 8‐2. Flammability test set‐up.Figure 8‐3. Flammability test set‐up for self‐supporting plastics in the hor...Figure 8‐4. Vertical burning test set‐up.Figure 8‐5. Flammability test chamber.Figure 8‐6. Setchkin self‐ignition call and consol.Figure 8‐7. Cross‐section of hot‐air ignition furnace assembly.Figure 8‐8. Typical equipment layout for oxygen index test.Figure 8‐9. Oxygen index tester.Figure 8‐10. Schematic radiant panel test.Figure 8‐11. Schematic “tunnel test.”Figure 8‐12. Apparatus to determine flammability of rigid cellular plastics....Figure 8‐13. Ignition tester.Figure 8‐14. Smoke density chamber.Figure 8‐15. NBS smoke density chamber.Figure 8‐16. Schematic of smoke generation test.Figure 8‐17. Commercial test apparatus – radiant panel test.Figure 8‐18. Horizontal burning test for HB classification.Figure 8‐19. Vertical burning test for 5V classification.

9 Chapter 9Figure 9‐1. Jig for solven stress cracking test.Figure 9‐2. Nicking jig.Figure 9‐3. Test specimen, specimen holder, and test assembly.Figure 9‐4. Simple fixture for the constant strain test.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10‐1. (a) Specific gravity test.(b) Digital version of the appara...Figure 10‐2. (a) Density gradient column. (b) Auto density gradient apparatu...Figure 10‐3. Moisture analyzer employing LOD principle.Figure 10‐4. Sensor‐based moisture analyzer.Figure 10‐5. Sieve analysis.

11 Chapter 12Figure 12‐1. (a) Typical fusion curve. (b) Fusion curve, heat and shear stab...Figure 12‐2. Brabender torque rheometer.Figure 12‐3. Sigma style mixer for plasticizer absorption test.Figure 12‐4. Powder mixing process.Figure 12‐5. Zahn viscosity cup.Figure 12‐6. Quick burst test apparatus.Figure 12‐7. Pressure intensifier.Figure 12‐8. Hydrostatic pressure tester.Figure 12‐9. Hoop stress versus time to rupture.Figure 12‐10. Crush tester.Figure 12‐11. Torque tester.Figure 12‐12. (a) Pull tester.(b) Multipurpose tester.Figure 12‐13. Typical ash content test setup.

12 Chapter 13Figure 13‐1. Fisher‐Johns melting point apparatus.

13 Chapter 14Figure 14‐1. Schematic, air pychnometer.Figure 14‐2. Air pychnometer.Figure 14‐3. Compressive strength (stress at the yield point below 10 percen...Figure 14‐4. Compressive strength (stress at 10 percent deformation).Figure 14‐5. Test apparatus – shear property.Figure 14‐6. Commercial WVT analyzer.Figure 14‐7. Block specimen—tear resistance test. (Reprinted with permission...Figure 14‐8. Die for cutting a dumbbell‐shaped specimen for a tension test....Figure 14‐9. Resilience test apparatus.

14 Chapter 15Figure 15‐1. Over‐the‐wall approach to new product development.Figure 15‐2. Concurrent engineering approach to product development to reduc...Figure 15‐3. Breakdown of major reasons behind plastic product failures.Figure 15‐4. A typical failure (stress cracking) resulting from improper mat...Figure 15‐5. Comprehensive checklist to help with material selection. See ap...Figure 15‐6. Example of a thermal failure (warped parts) from exposure to ex...Figure 15‐7. (a) A typical expansion loop and (b) an expansion joint install...Figure 15‐8. Effect of crystallinity on chemical resistance.Figure 15‐9. Premature part failure resulting from exposure to an aggressive...FLOWCHART 15‐1. Steps for the Robust Part Design ProcessFigure 15‐10. The combined effect of stress concentration and molded‐in stre...Figure 15‐11. The influence of the fillet radius on stress concentration. At...Figure 15‐12. The effect of notch sensitivity on a very tough material like ...Figure 15‐13. Typical part failure from a lack of radius in key areas of the...Figure 15‐14. Part failure from a lack of radius where fan blades join the h...Figure 15‐15. Failure resulting from excessive wall thickness.Figure 15‐16. Guidelines for the rib design.Figure 15‐17. Typical issues (warpage) related due to an improper rib design...Figure 15‐18. Crazing in polycarbonate barb resulting from contact with inco...Figure 15‐19. Cracks around metal insert in a part. Heavy stress concentrati...Figure 15‐20. (a) A cracked part as a result of the stresses generated from ...Figure 15‐21. (a) Effect of moisture on the hygroscopic resin pellet. (b) Ef...Figure 15‐22. Part failure from voids as a result of underpacking. Voids gen...Figure 15‐23. Declining physical properties in a part from successive genera...Figure 15‐24. A broken wire tie and brittleness from excessive use of regrin...Figure 15‐25. Failed toilet supply line coupling nut due to over tightening ...Figure 15‐26. (a and b) Creep related failure due to overtightening.Figure 15‐27. Polystyrene part degraded from prolonged contact with gasoline...Figure 15‐28. Progressive steps in failure due to environmental stress crack...Figure 15‐29. Failed sprinkler housing as a result of environmental stress c...Figure 15‐30. Failure occurring in plastic part due to continuous exposure a...Figure 15‐31. Decomposition of a swimming pool skimmer cover from continuous...FLOWCHART 15‐2. Figure 15‐32. Typical photoelastic stress pattern.Figure 15‐33. Compensator method for quantitative stress measurement.Figure 15‐34. Residual stresses in medical packaging before and after anneal...Figure 15‐35. Birefringence comparison of four compact discs with varying de...Figure 15‐36. Typical stress pattern in the coating after being strained....Figure 15‐37. The result of a solvent attack in terms of crazing and crackin...Figure 15‐38. Shrinkage voids.Figure 15‐39. DSC thermogram showing the clear difference in melting point o...Figure 15‐40. Branching.Figure 15‐41. River markings pointing towards the fracture origin.Figure 15‐42. Wallner lines and initial fracture sites.Figure 15‐43. Fracture striations emanating from the fracture origin of the ...Figure 15‐1‐1. TA Instruments AR‐1000 controlled stress rheometer.Figure 15‐1‐2. Comparison of flow curves of Sample A and Sample B at 190 °C....Figure 15‐1‐3. Proton NMR spectra of polyacetal resin samples.Figure 15‐1‐4. Proton NMR spectra of polyacetal resin samples.Figure 15‐1‐5. FTIR spectra of the two resin films.Figure 15‐1‐6. ATR‐FTIR spectra of filtered extracts.Figure 15‐1‐7. The overlay of the two spectra.Figure 15‐1‐8. The overlay of the GC chromatograms of extracts.Figure 15‐2‐1. Comparison of duplicate infrared spectra acquired from the sa...Figure 15‐2‐2. Comparison of the infrared spectra acquired from Sample A1 an...Figure 15‐2‐3. Gas chromatogram of the A1 coating sample.Figure 15‐2‐4. Gas chromatogram of the B1 coating sample.

15 Chapter 16Figure 16‐1. Interdependence of major variables in controlling product quali...Figure 16‐2. (a) Typical variables control chart. (b) Variables control char...Figure 16‐3. Chart showing the process out of control due to material variat...Figure 16‐4. An X chart showing a trend.Figure 16‐5. Ideal sampling plan.Figure 16‐6. A typical operating characteristic curve.Figure 16‐7. Double sampling plan.Figure 16‐8. Switching plan.Figure 16‐9. Computerized SPC/SQC software.Figure 16‐10. Visual defect.Figure 16‐11. Criteria for accepting or rejecting the part.Figure 16‐12. (a) Visual defect summary chart. (b) Cosmetic specifications. ...Figure 16‐13. Mold information form.Figure 16‐14. Mold history record card.Figure 16‐15. A typical workmanship standard.Figure 16‐16. Supplier selection process for certification.Figure 16‐17. Supplier performance evaluation form.

16 Chapter 18Figure 18‐1. Pulse‐echo technique.Figure 18‐2. Instrument for detecting flaws using the pulse‐echo technique....Figure 18‐3. Immersion technique.Figure 18‐4. Transmission technique.Figure 18‐5. Wall thickness and diameter measurement system.Figure 18‐6. Thickness tester, using the ultrasonic measurement technique....Figure 18‐7. Principle of operation – gamma backscatter gauging technique....Figure 18‐8. Gamma backscatter and optical measurement system with process c...Figure 18‐9. Beta transmission sensor.Figure 18‐10. Wall thickness measurement using Hall effect gauging.Figure 18‐11. CT scanner principle.Figure 18‐12. Commercially available CT Scanner.

17 Chapter 20Figure 20‐1. Trend towards global standardization.Figure 20‐2. (a) Differences between old style, multicavity, unbalanced fami...Figure 20‐3. Typical page from CAMPUS.Figure 20‐4. Typical page from CAMPUS.