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Reduced muscle mass, aerobic capacity, glycogen stores, bone density, calcium bioavailability, vitamin D synthesis, immune function, metabolic use of pyridoxine (B₆), gastric acid, hepatic uptake of retinol, thirst perception, kidney function.

Increased oxidative stress (see p89), homocysteine levels (see glossary).

Fluid requirements are increased in older athletes due to a loss of thirst sensitivity and a delay in the sweat response.