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CHAPTER IV.

FROM "SIGNS AND WONDERS" TO LAW IN THE HEAVENS.

I. The Theological View.

Early beliefs as to comets, meteors, and eclipses

Their inheritance by Jews and Christians

The belief regarding comets especially harmful as a source of

superstitious terror

Its transmission through the Middle Ages

Its culmination under Pope Calixtus III

Beginnings of scepticism—Copernicus, Paracelsus, Scaliger

Firmness of theologians, Catholic and Protestant, in its support

II. Theological Efforts to crush the Scientific View.

The effort through the universities.—The effort through the

pulpits

Heerbrand at Tubingen and Dieterich at Marburg

Maestlin at Heidelberg

Buttner, Vossius, Torreblanca, Fromundus

Father Augustin de Angelis at Rome

Reinzer at Linz

Celichius at Magdeburg

Conrad Dieterich's sermon at Ulm

Erni and others in Switzerland

Comet doggerel

Echoes from New England—Danforth, Morton, Increase Mather

III. The Invasion of Scepticism.

Rationalism of Cotton Mather, and its cause

Blaise de Vigenere

Erastus

Bekker, Lubienitzky, Pierre Petit

Bayle

Fontenelle

The scientific movement beneath all this

IV. Theological Efforts at Compromise.—The Final Victory of

Science.

The admission that some comets are supralunar

Difference between scientific and theological reasoning

Development of the reasoning of Tycho and Kepler—Cassini, Hevel,

Doerfel, Bernouilli, Newton

Completion of the victory by Halley and Clairaut

Survivals of the superstition—Joseph de Maistre, Forster Arago's

statistics

The theories of Whiston and Burnet, and their influence in

Germany

The superstition ended in America by the lectures of Winthrop

Helpful influence of John Wesley

Effects of the victory

CHAPTER V.

FROM GENESIS TO GEOLOGY.

I. Growth of Theological Explanations

Germs of geological truth among the Greeks and Romans

Attitude of the Church toward science

Geological theories of the early theologians

Attitude of the schoolmen

Contributions of the Arabian schools

Theories of the earlier Protestants

Influence of the revival of learning

II. Efforts to Suppress the Scientific View.

Revival of scientific methods

Buffon and the Sorbonne

Beringer's treatise on fossils

Protestant opposition to the new geology—the works of Burnet,

Whiston, Wesley, Clark,

Watson, Arnold, Cockburn, and others

III. The First Great Effort of Compromise, based on the Flood of

Noah.

The theory that fossils were produced by the Deluge

Its acceptance by both Catholics and Protestants—Luther, Calmet

Burnet, Whiston, Woodward, Mazurier, Torrubia, Increase Mather

Scheuchzer

Voltaire's theory of fossils

Vain efforts of enlightened churchmen in behalf of the scientific

view

Steady progress of science—the work of Cuvier and Brongniart

Granvile Penn's opposition

The defection of Buckland and Lyell to the scientific side

Surrender of the theologians

Remnants of the old belief

Death-blow given to the traditional theory of the Deluge by the

discovery of the Chaldean accounts

Results of the theological opposition to science

IV. Final Efforts at Compromise—The Victory of Science

complete.

Efforts of Carl von Raumer, Wagner, and others

The new testimony of the caves and beds of drift as to the

antiquity of man

Gosse's effort to save the literal interpretation of Genesis

Efforts of Continental theologians

Gladstone's attempt at a compromise

Its demolition by Huxley

By Canon Driver

Dean Stanley on the reconciliation of Science and Scripture

CHAPTER VI.

THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN, EGYPTOLOGY, AND ASSYRIOLOGY.

I. The Sacred Chronology.

Two fields in which Science has gained a definite victory over

Theology

Opinions of the Church fathers on the antiquity of man

The chronology of Isidore

Of Bede

Of the medieval Jewish scholars

The views of the Reformers on the antiquity of man

Of the Roman Church

Of Archbishop Usher

Influence of Egyptology on the belief in man's antiquity

La Peyrere's theory of the Pre-Adamites

Opposition in England to the new chronology

II. The New Chronology.

Influence of the new science of Egyptology on biblical chronology

Manetho's history of Egypt and the new chronology derived from it

Evidence of the antiquity of man furnished by the monuments of

Egypt

By her art

By her science

By other elements of civilization

By the remains found in the bed of the Nile

Evidence furnished by the study of Assyriology

CHAPTER VII.

THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY.

I. The Thunder-stones.

Early beliefs regarding "thunder-stones"

Theories of Mercati and Tollius regarding them

Their identification with the implements of prehistoric man

Remains of man found in caverns

Unfavourable influence on scientific activity of the political

conditions of the early part of the nineteenth century

Change effected by the French Revolution of to {??}

Rallying of the reactionary clerical influence against science

II. The Flint Weapons and Implements.

Boucher de Perthes's contributions to the knowledge of

prehistoric man

His conclusions confirmed by Lyell and others

Cave explorations of Lartet and Christy

Evidence of man's existence furnished by rude carvings

Cave explorations in the British Islands

Evidence of man's existence in the Drift period

In the early Quaternary and in the Tertiary periods

CHAPTER VIII.

THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

The two antagonistic views regarding the life of man on the

earth

The theory of "the Fall" among ancient peoples

Inheritance of this view by the Christian Church

Appearance among the Greeks and Romans of the theory of a rise of

man

Its disappearance during the Middle Ages

Its development since the seventeenth century

The first blow at the doctrine of "the Fall" comes from geology

Influence of anthropology on the belief in this doctrine

The finding of human skulls in Quaternary deposits

Their significance

Results obtained from the comparative study of the remains of

human handiwork

Discovery of human remains in shell-heaps on the shores of the

Baltic Sea

In peat-beds

The lake-dwellers

Indications of the upward direction of man's development

Mr. Southall's attack on the theory of man's antiquity

An answer to it

Discovery of prehistoric human remains in Egypt

Hamard's attack on the new scientific conclusions

The survival of prehistoric implements in religious rites

Strength of the argument against the theory of "the Fall of Man"

CHAPTER IX.

THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ETHNOLOGY.

The beginnings of the science of Comparative Ethnology

Its testimony to the upward tendency of man from low beginning

Theological efforts to break its force—De Maistre and DeBonald

Whately's attempt

The attempt of the Duke of Argyll

Evidence of man's upward tendency derived from Comparative

Philology

From Comparative Literature and Folklore

From Comparative Ethnography

From Biology

CHAPTER X.

THE "FALL OF MAN" AND HISTORY.

Proof of progress given by the history of art

Proofs from general history

Development of civilization even under unfavourable circumstances

Advancement even through catastrophes and the decay of

civilizations

Progress not confined to man's material condition

Theological struggle against the new scientific view

Persecution of Prof. Winchell

Of Dr. Woodrow

Other interferences with freedom of teaching

The great harm thus done to religion

Rise of a better spirit

The service rendered to religion by Anthropology

CHAPTER XI.

FROM "THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR" TO METEOROLOGY.

I. Growth of a Theological Theory.

The beliefs of classical antiquity regarding storms, thunder, and

lightning

Development of a sacred science of meteorology by the fathers of

the Church

Theories of Cosmas Indicopleustes

Of Isidore

Of Seville

Of Bede

Of Rabanus Maurus

Rational views of Honorius of Autun

Orthodox theories of John of San Geminiano

Attempt of Albert the Great to reconcile the speculations of

Aristotle with the theological views

The monkish encyclopedists

Theories regarding the rainbow and the causes of storms

Meteorological phenomena attributed to the Almighty

II. Diabolical Agency in Storms.

Meteorological phenomena attributed to the devil—"the prince of

the power of the air"

Propagation of this belief by the medieval theologians

Its transmission to both Catholics and Protestants—Eck, Luther

The great work of Delrio

Guacci's Compendium

The employment of prayer against "the powers of the air"

Of exorcisms

Of fetiches and processions

Of consecrated church bells

III. The Agency of Witches.

The fearful results of the witch superstition

Its growth out of the doctrine of evil agency in atmospheric

phenomena

Archbishop Agobard's futile attempt to dispel it

Its sanction by the popes

Its support by confessions extracted by torture

Part taken in the persecution by Dominicans and Jesuits

Opponents of the witch theory—Pomponatius, Paracelsus, Agrippa

of Nettesheim

Jean Bodin's defence of the superstition

Fate of Cornelius Loos

Of Dietrich Flade

Efforts of Spee to stem the persecution

His posthumous influence

Upholders of the orthodox view—Bishop Binsfeld, Remigius

Vain protests of Wier

Persecution of Bekker for opposing the popular belief

Effect of the Reformation in deepening the superstition

The persecution in Great Britain and America

Development of a scientific view of the heavens

Final efforts to revive the old belief

IV. Franklin's Lightning-Rod.

Franklin's experiments with the kite

Their effect on the old belief

Efforts at compromise between the scientific and theological

theories

Successful use of the lightning-rod

Religious scruples against it in America

In England

In Austria

In Italy

Victory of the scientific theory

This victory exemplified in the case of the church of the

monastery of Lerins

In the case of Dr. Moorhouse

In the case of the Missouri droughts

CHAPTER XII.

FROM MAGIC TO CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

I. The Supremacy of Magic.

Primitive tendency to belief in magic

The Greek conception of natural laws

Influence of Plato and Aristotle on the growth of science

Effect of the establishment of Christianity on the development of

the physical sciences

The revival of thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

Albert the Great

Vincent of Beauvais

Thomas Aquinas

Roger Bacon's beginning of the experimental method brought to

nought

The belief that science is futile gives place to the belief that

it is dangerous

The two kinds of magic

Rarity of persecution for magic before the Christian era

The Christian theory of devils

Constantine's laws against magic

Increasing terror of magic and witchcraft

Papal enactments against them

Persistence of the belief in magic

Its effect on the development of science

Roger Bacon

Opposition of secular rulers to science

John Baptist Porta

The opposition to scientific societies in Italy

In England

The effort to turn all thought from science to religion

The development of mystic theology

Its harmful influence on science

Mixture of theological with scientific speculation

This shown in the case of Melanchthon

In that of Francis Bacon

Theological theory of gases

Growth of a scientific theory

Basil Valentine and his contributions to chemistry

Triumph of the scientific theory

II. The Triumph of Chemistry and Physics.

New epoch in chemistry begun by Boyle

Attitude of the mob toward science

Effect on science of the reaction following the French

Revolution: {?}

Development of chemistry since the middle of the nineteenth

century

Development of physics

Modern opposition to science in Catholic countries

Attack of scientific education in France

In England

In Prussia

Revolt against the subordination of education to science

Effect of the International Exhibition of ii {?} at London

Of the endowment of State colleges in America by the Morrill

Act of 1862

The results to religion

CHAPTER XIII.

FROM MIRACLES TO MEDICINE.

I. THE EARLY AND SACRED THEORIES OF DISEASE.

Naturalness of the idea of supernatural intervention in causing

and curing disease

Prevalence of this idea in ancient civilizations

Beginnings of a scientific theory of medicine

The twofold influence of Christianity on the healing art

II. GROWTH OF LEGENDS OF HEALING.—THE LIFE OF XAVIER AS A

TYPICAL EXAMPLE.

Growth of legends of miracles about the lives of great

benefactors of humanity

Sketch of Xavier's career

Absence of miraculous accounts in his writings and those of his

contemporaries

Direct evidence that Xavier wrought no miracles

Growth of legends of miracles as shown in the early biographies

of him

As shown in the canonization proceedings

Naturalness of these legends

III. THE MEDIAEVAL MIRACLES OF HEALING CHECK MEDICAL SCIENCE.

Character of the testimony regarding miracles

Connection of mediaeval with pagan miracles

Their basis of fact

Various kinds of miraculous cures

Atmosphere of supernaturalism thrown about all cures

Influence of this atmosphere on medical science

IV. THE ATTRIBUTION OF DISEASE TO SATANIC INFLUENCE.—"PASTORAL

MEDICINE" CHECKS SCIENTIFIC EFFORT.

Theological theory as to the cause of disease

Influence of self-interest on "pastoral medicine"

Development of fetichism at Cologne and elsewhere

Other developments of fetich cure

V. THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO ANATOMICAL STUDIES.

Medieval belief in the unlawfulness of meddling with the bodies

of the dead

Dissection objected to on the ground that "the Church abhors the

shedding of blood"

The decree of Boniface VIII and its results

VI. NEW BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.

Galen

Scanty development of medical science in the Church

Among Jews and Mohammedans

Promotion of medical science by various Christian laymen of the

Middle Ages

By rare men of science

By various ecclesiastics

VII. THEOLOGICAL DISCOURAGEMENT OF MEDICINE.

Opposition to seeking cure from disease by natural means

Requirement of ecclesiastical advice before undertaking medical

treatment

Charge of magic and Mohammedanism against men of science

Effect of ecclesiastical opposition to medicine

The doctrine of signatures

The doctrine of exorcism

Theological opposition to surgery

Development of miracle and fetich cures

Fashion in pious cures

Medicinal properties of sacred places

Theological argument in favour of miraculous cures

Prejudice against Jewish physicians

VIII. FETICH CURES UNDER PROTESTANTISM.—THE ROYAL TOUCH.

Luther's theory of disease

The royal touch

Cures wrought by Charles II

By James II

By William III

By Queen Anne

By Louis XIV

Universal acceptance of these miracles

IX. THE SCIENTIFIC STRUGGLE FOR ANATOMY.

Occasional encouragement of medical science in the Middle Ages

New impulse given by the revival of learning and the age of

discovery

Paracelsus and Mundinus

Vesalius, the founder of the modern science of anatomy.—His

career and fate

X. THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO INOCULATION, VACCINATION, AND THE

USE OF ANAESTHETICS.

Theological opposition to inoculation in Europe

In America

Theological opposition to vaccination

Recent hostility to vaccination in England

In Canada, during the smallpox epidemic

Theological opposition to the use of cocaine

To the use of quinine

Theological opposition to the use of anesthetics

XI. FINAL BREAKING AWAY OF THE THEOLOGICAL THEORY IN MEDICINE.

Changes incorporated in the American Book of Common Prayer

Effect on the theological view of the growing knowledge of the

relation between imagination and medicine

Effect of the discoveries in hypnotism

In bacteriology

Relation between ascertained truth and the "ages of faith"

CHAPTER XIV.

FROM FETICH TO HYGIENE.

I. THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW OF EPIDEMICS AND SANITATION.

The recurrence of great pestilences

Their early ascription to the wrath or malice of unseen powers

Their real cause want of hygienic precaution

Theological apotheosis of filth

Sanction given to the sacred theory of pestilence by Pope Gregory

the Great

Modes of propitiating the higher powers

Modes of thwarting the powers of evil

Persecution of the Jews as Satan's emissaries

Persecution of witches as Satan's emissaries

Case of the Untori at Milan

New developments of fetichism.—The blood of St. Januarius at

Naples

Appearance of better methods in Italy.—In Spain

II. GRADUAL DECAY OF THEOLOGICAL VIEWS REGARDING SANITATION.

Comparative freedom of England from persecutions for

plague-bringing, in spite of her wretched sanitary condition

Aid sought mainly through church services

Effects of the great fire in London

The jail fever

The work of John Howard

Plagues in the American colonies

In France.—The great plague at Marseilles

Persistence of the old methods in Austria

In Scotland

III. THE TRIUMPH OF SANITARY SCIENCE.

Difficulty of reconciling the theological theory of pestilences

with accumulating facts

Curious approaches to a right theory

The law governing the relation of theology to disease

Recent victories of hygiene in all countries

In England.—Chadwick and his fellows

In France

IV. THE RELATION OF SANITARY SCIENCE TO RELIGION.

The process of sanitary science not at the cost of religion

Illustration from the policy of Napoleon III in France

Effect of proper sanitation on epidemics in the United States

Change in the attitude of the Church toward the cause and cure of

pestilence

CHAPTER XV.

FROM "DEMONIACAL POSSESSION" TO INSANITY.

I. THEOLOGICAL IDEAS OF LUNACY AND ITS TREATMENT.

The struggle for the scientific treatment of the insane

The primitive ascription of insanity to evil spirits

Better Greek and Roman theories—madness a disease

The Christian Church accepts the demoniacal theory of insanity

Yet for a time uses mild methods for the insane

Growth of the practice of punishing the indwelling demon

Two sources whence better things might have been hoped.—The

reasons of their futility

The growth of exorcism

Use of whipping and torture

The part of art and literature in making vivid to the common mind

the idea of diabolic activity

The effects of religious processions as a cure for mental disease

Exorcism of animals possessed of demons

Belief in the transformation of human beings into animals

The doctrine of demoniacal possession in the Reformed Church

II. BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.

Rivalry between Catholics and Protestants in the casting out of

devils

Increased belief in witchcraft during the period following the

Reformation

Increase of insanity during the witch persecutions II {?}

Attitude of physicians toward witchcraft I

Religious hallucinations of the insane I

Theories as to the modes of diabolic entrance into the possessed

Influence of monastic life on the development of insanity

Protests against the theological view of insanity—Wier,

Montaigue Bekker

Last struggles of the old superstition

III. THE FINAL STRUGGLE AND VICTORY OF SCIENCE.—PINEL AND TUKE.

Influence of French philosophy on the belief in demoniacal

possession

Reactionary influence of John Wesley

Progress of scientific ideas in Prussia

In Austria

In America

In South Germany

General indifference toward the sufferings of madmen

The beginnings of a more humane treatment

Jean Baptiste Pinel

Improvement in the treatment of the insane in England.—William

Tuke

The place of Pinel and Tuke in history

CHAPTER XVI.

FROM DIABOLISM TO HYSTERIA.

I. THE EPIDEMICS OF "POSSESSION."

Survival of the belief in diabolic activity as the cause of such

epidemics

Epidemics of hysteria in classical times

In the Middle Ages

The dancing mania

Inability of science during the fifteenth century to cope with

such diseases

Cases of possession brought within the scope of medical research

during the sixteenth century

Dying-out of this form of mental disease in northern Europe

In Italy

Epidemics of hysteria in the convents

The case of Martha Brossier

Revival in France of belief in diabolic influence

The Ursulines of Loudun and Urbain Grandier

Possession among the Huguenots

In New England.—The Salem witch persecution

At Paris.—Alleged miracles at the grave of Archdeacon Paris

In Germany.—Case of Maria Renata Sanger

More recent outbreaks

II. BEGINNINGS OF HELPFUL SCEPTICISM.

Outbreaks of hysteria in factories and hospitals

In places of religious excitement

The case at Morzine

Similar cases among Protestants and in Africa

III. THEOLOGICAL "RESTATEMENTS."—FINAL TRIUMPH OF THE

SCIENTIFIC VIEW AND METHODS.

Successful dealings of medical science with mental diseases

Attempts to give a scientific turn to the theory of diabolic

agency in disease

Last great demonstration of the old belief in England

Final triumph of science in the latter half of the present

century

Last echoes of the old belief

CHAPTER XVII.

FROM BABEL TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

I. THE SACRED THEORY IN ITS FIRST FORM.

Difference of the history of Comparative Philology from that of

other sciences as regards the attitude of theologians

Curiosity of early man regarding the origin, the primitive form,

and the diversity of language

The Hebrew answer to these questions

The legend of the Tower of Babel

The real reason for the building of towers by the Chaldeans and

the causes of their ruin

Other legends of a confusion of tongues

Influence upon Christendom of the Hebrew legends

Lucretius's theory of the origin of language

The teachings of the Church fathers on this subject

The controversy as to the divine origin of the Hebrew vowel

points

Attitude of the reformers toward this question

Of Catholic scholars.—Marini Capellus and his adversaries

The treatise of Danzius

II. THE SACRED THEORY OF LANGUAGE IN ITS SECOND FORM.

Theological theory that Hebrew was the primitive tongue, divinely

revealed

This theory supported by all Christian scholars until the

beginning of the eighteenth century

Dissent of Prideaux and Cotton Mather

Apparent strength of the sacred theory of language

III. BREAKING DOWN OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW.

Reason for the Church's ready acceptance of the conclusions of

comparative philology

Beginnings of a scientific theory of language

Hottinger

Leibnitz

The collections of Catharine the Great, of Hervas, and of Adelung

Chaotic period in philology between Leibnitz and the beginning of

the study of Sanskrit

Illustration from the successive editions of the Encyclopaedia

Britannica

IV. TRIUMPH OF THE NEW SCIENCE.

Effect of the discovery of Sanskrit on the old theory

Attempts to discredit the new learning

General acceptance of the new theory

Destruction of the belief that all created things were first

named by Adam

Of the belief in the divine origin of letters

Attempts in England to support the old theory of language

Progress of philological science in France

In Germany

In Great Britain

Recent absurd attempts to prove Hebrew the primitive tongue

V. SUMMARY.

Gradual disappearance of the old theories regarding the origin of

speech and writing

Full acceptance of the new theories by all Christian scholars

The result to religion, and to the Bible

CHAPTER XVIII.

FROM THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS TO COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY,

I. THE GROWTH OF EXPLANATORY TRANSFORMATION MYTHS.

Growth of myths to account for remarkable appearances in

Nature—mountains, rocks, curiously marked stones, fossils,

products of volcanic action

Myths of the transformation of living beings into natural objects

Development of the science of Comparative Mythology

II. MEDIAEVAL GROWTH OF THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS.

Description of the Dead Sea

Impression made by its peculiar features on the early dwellers in

Palestine

Reasons for selecting the Dead Sea myths for study

Naturalness of the growth of legend regarding the salt region of

Usdum

Universal belief in these legends

Concurrent testimony of early and mediaeval writers, Jewish and

Christian, respecting the existence of Lot's wife as a "pillar of

salt," and of the other wonders of the Dead Sea

Discrepancies in the various accounts and theological

explanations of them

Theological arguments respecting the statue of Lot's wife

Growth of the legend in the sixteenth century

III. POST-REFORMATION CULMINATION OF THE DEAD SEA

LEGENDS.—BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.

Popularization of the older legends at the Reformation

Growth of new myths among scholars

Signs of scepticism among travellers near the end of the

sixteenth century

Effort of Quaresmio to check this tendency

Of Eugene Roger

Of Wedelius

Influence of these teachings

Renewed scepticism—the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Efforts of Briemle and Masius in support of the old myths

Their influence

The travels of Mariti and of Volney

Influence of scientific thought on the Dead Sea legends during

the eighteenth century

Reactionary efforts of Chateaubriand

Investigations of the naturalist Seetzen

Of Dr. Robinson

The expedition of Lieutenant Lynch

The investigations of De Saulcy

Of the Duc de Luynes.—Lartet's report

Summary of the investigations of the nineteenth

century.—Ritter's verdict

IV. THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE.—TRIUMPH OF THE

SCIENTIFIC VIEW.

Attempts to reconcile scientific facts with the Dead Sea legends

Van de Velde's investigations of the Dead Sea region

Canon Tristram's

Mgr. Mislin's protests against the growing rationalism

The work of Schaff and Osborn

Acceptance of the scientific view by leaders in the Church

Dr. Geikie's ascription of the myths to the Arabs

Mgr. Haussmann de Wandelburg and his rejection of the scientific

view

Service of theologians to religion in accepting the conclusions

of silence in this field

CHAPTER XIX.

FROM LEVITICUS TO POLITICAL ECONOMY

I. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF HOSTILITY TO LOANS AT INTEREST.

Universal belief in the sin of loaning money at interest

The taking of interest among the Greeks and Romans

Opposition of leaders of thought, especially Aristotle

Condemnation of the practice by the Old and New Testaments

By the Church fathers

In ecclesiastical and secular legislation

Exception sometimes made in behalf of the Jews

Hostility of the pulpit

Of the canon law

Evil results of the prohibition of loans at interest

Efforts to induce the Church to change her position

Theological evasions of the rule

Attitude of the Reformers toward the taking of interest

Struggle in England for recognition of the right to accept

interest

Invention of a distinction between usury and interest

II. RETREAT OF THE CHURCH, PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC.

Sir Robert Filmer's attack on the old doctrine

Retreat of the Protestant Church in Holland

In Germany and America

Difficulties in the way of compromise in the Catholic Church

Failure of such attempts in France

Theoretical condemnation of usury in Italy

Disregard of all restrictions in practice

Attempts of Escobar and Liguori to reconcile the taking of

interest with the teachings of the Church

Montesquieu's attack on the old theory

Encyclical of Benedict XIV permitting the taking of interest

Similar decision of the Inquisition at Rome

Final retreat of the Catholic Church

Curious dealings of theology with public economy in other fields

CHAPTER XX.

FROM THE DIVINE ORACLES TO THE HIGHER CRITICISM.

I. THE OLDER INTERPRETATION.

Character of the great sacred

books of the world

General laws governing the development and influence of sacred

literature.—The law of its origin

Legends concerning the Septuagint

The law of wills and causes

The law of inerrancy

Hostility to the revision of King James's translation of the

Bible

The law of unity

Working of these laws seen in the great rabbinical schools

The law of allegorical interpretation

Philo

Judaeus

Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria

Occult significance of numbers

Origen

Hilary of Poitiers and Jerome

Augustine

Gregory the Great

Vain attempts to check the flood of allegorical interpretations

Bede.—Savonarola

Methods of modern criticism for the first time employed by

Lorenzo Valla

Erasmus

Influence of the Reformation on the belief in the infallibility

of the sacred books.—Luther and Melanchthon

Development of scholasticism in the Reformed Church

Catholic belief in the inspiration of the Vulgate

Opposition in Russia to the revision of the Slavonic Scriptures

Sir Isaac Newton as a commentator

Scriptural interpretation at the beginning of the eighteenth

century

II. BEGINNINGS OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.

Theological beliefs regarding the Pentateuch

The book of Genesis

Doubt thrown on the sacred theory by Aben Ezra

By Carlstadt and Maes

Influence of the discovery that the Isidorian

Decretals were forgeries

That the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite were

serious

Hobbes and La Peyrere

Spinoza

Progress of biblical criticism in France.—Richard Simon

LeClerc

Bishop Lowth

Astruc

Eichhorn's application of the "higher criticism" to biblical

research

Isenbiehl

Herder

Alexander Geddes

Opposition to the higher criticism in Germany

Hupfeld

Vatke and Reuss

Kuenen

Wellhausen

III. THE CONTINUED GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.

Progress of the higher criticism in Germany and Holland

Opposition to it in England

At the University of Oxford

Pusey

Bentley

Wolf

Niebuhr and Arnold

Milman

Thirlwall and Grote

The publication of Essays and Reviews, and the storm raised by

book

IV. THE CLOSING STRUGGLE.

Colenso's work on the Pentateuch

The persecution of him

Bishop Wilberforce's part in it

Dean Stanley's

Bishop Thirlwall's

Results of Colenso's work

Sanday's Bampton Lectures

Keble College and Lux

Mundi

Progress of biblical criticism among the dissenters

In France.—Renan

In the Roman Catholic Church

The encyclical letter of Pope Leo XIII

In America.—Theodore Parker

Apparent strength of the old theory of inspiration

Real strength of the new movement

V. VICTORY OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY METHODS.

Confirmation of the conclusions of the higher criticism by

Assyriology and Egyptology

Light thrown upon Hebrew religion by the translation of the

sacred books of the East

The influence of Persian thought.—The work of the Rev. Dr. Mills

The influence of Indian thought.—Light thrown by the study of

Brahmanism and Buddhism

The work of Fathers Huc and Gabet

Discovery that Buddha himself had been canonized as a Christian

saint

Similarity between the ideas and legends of Buddhism and those of

Christianity

The application of the higher criticism to the New Testament

The English "Revised Version" of Studies on the formation of the

canon of Scripture

Recognition of the laws governing its development

Change in the spirit of the controversy over the higher criticism

VI. RECONSTRUCTIVE FORCE OF SCIENTIFIC CRITICISM.

Development of a scientific atmosphere during the last three

centuries

Action of modern science in reconstruction of religious truth

Change wrought by it in the conception of a sacred literature

Of the Divine Power.—Of man.—Of the world at large

Of our Bible