Читать книгу The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics - Carol A. Chapelle - Страница 2

1  Cover

2  Thematic List of Entries Analysis of Context of Language Use Analysis of Language Use Language Assessment and Testing Language Learning and Teaching Language Policy and Planning Language for Specific Purposes Linguistic Analysis for Applied Problems Multilingualism Research Methods Second Language Development Technology and Language Translation and Interpreting World Englishes

3  Alphabetical List of Entries

4  General Editor

5  Contributors

6  Introduction to The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics Defining Applied Linguistics Problems in Applied Linguistics Research in Applied Linguistics Reading The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics References Suggested Readings Note

7  Acknowledgments

8  A Adverbs Form and Function Classification Semantic Roles Adverbs in Discourse References Suggested Readings African Union Introduction Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Language Policy and Ideologies The African Union and Africa's Past Language Policies The African Union and Attitudes Toward African Languages The African Union and Prospects for the Indigenous African Languages References Suggested Readings Agency in Second Language Acquisition Significance of Agency in SLA: A Theoretical Overview Theoretical Perspectives on Agency in SLA Research Into Agency in L2 Learning and Teaching Conclusion References Suggested Reading Note Analysis of Dialogue Dialogues Organization Intersubjectivity Social Context Conclusion References Suggested Readings Analysis of Gender in Interaction What Is Gender in Human Interaction? The Polysemy of Gendered Language References Suggested Readings Anthropological Linguistics References Suggested Readings Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition References Suggested Readings Assessment in the Classroom Approaches of Classroom Assessment Assessment for Summative Purposes or Assessment of Learning Assessment for Formative Purposes or Assessment for Learning Assessment as Learning The Role of Standards in Classroom Assessment Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Assessment of Cultural Knowledge Introduction Conceptualizing Cultural Knowledge The Nature of Instruments Assessing Cultural Knowledge Selected Cultural Knowledge Assessment Instruments Conclusion References Online Resources Note Assessment of Integrated Skills Test Tasks Computer Madness Research in the Assessment of Integrated Skills Benefits of Integrated Assessment Challenges of Integrated Assessment Development Reliability and Rating Validity Conclusions References Suggested Readings Assessment of the Linguistic Resources of Communication Representing the Linguistic Resources of Communication Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as Knowledge of Grammatical Forms Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as a Set of Resources for Communicating Contextualized Meanings Measuring the Linguistic Resources of Communication Conclusion References Note Assessment of Listening Listening Processes Factors Affecting Listening Tasks for Assessing Listening Limitations of Listening Assessment Tasks Computers in Assessing Listening Current and Future Directions in Assessing Listening References Suggested Readings Assessment of Pragmatics The Construct Tests Under the Speech Act Construct Measurement of Interactional Abilities Challenges in Testing L2 Pragmatics Conclusion References Assessment of Reading Brief History of Reading Research Linguistic Knowledge and Reading Ability Reading Ability in a Second Language Reading Assessment in a Second Language Unique Challenges in L2 Reading Assessment Future Directions in Second Language Reading Assessment References Suggested Readings Assessment of Speaking Speaking Assessment Methods Rating Scales and Scale Descriptors Raters Conclusion References Suggested Readings Assessment of Vocabulary Introduction Selection of Target Items Design of Assessments Conclusion References Suggested Readings Assessment of Writing Purposes of Writing Tests The Nature of Second Language Writing Types of Writing Assessments Characteristics of Writing Tests: Tasks and Scoring Challenges and Opportunities for the Future References Suggested Readings Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition Introduction Theoretical Approaches to the Roles of Attention and Awareness in SLA Attention/Noticing and Learning: Empirical Evidence in SLA Awareness and Learning in SLA Empirical Evidence for the Role of Awareness in SLA Learning Without Awareness? Where Do We Go From Here? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education Introduction Attitudes Motivation Different Motivational Models Minority Languages Foreign Languages: Global English Conclusions References Suggested Readings Audiovisual Translation Multimedia Translation AVT Modalities Dubbing Subtitling Fansubbing Accessibility References Authenticity in the Language Teaching Curriculum Authentic Materials in a Historical Context Pedagogical Challenges References Suggested Readings Note Automatic Speech Recognition Definition Historical Overview Challenges and Applications of ASR ASR in Applied Linguistics Automatic Rating of Pronunciation Other ASR Applications in Applied Linguistics Future Directions References Suggested Readings

9  B Bilingualism and Cognition Bilingualism and Language Bilingualism and Nonverbal Cognition References Suggested Readings Bilingual and Monolingual Language Modes Language Mode Evidence for Language Mode Language Mode in Different Groups of Bilinguals Language Mode in Research Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note

10  C Case Study Defining Case‐Study Research Case Studies in Applied Linguistics Issues in Case‐Study Research Case Studies in Mixed Methods Research Conclusion References Suggested Readings Chaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition/Development Introduction Traditional Views of SLA Shifting the Metaphor Language Users/Learners Usage‐Based Emergentism Individual Differences Implications for Research Methods Conclusion References Suggested Readings Classroom Research What Is Classroom Research? What Are the Origins of L2 Classroom Research? Are There Different Approaches to Classroom Research? What Questions and Topics Are Examined in CR? Future Directions in CR References Suggested Readings Cognitive Approaches to Translation Methodological Approaches Translation as Information Processing and Symbol Manipulation Translation as an Experiential, Cultural Act Translation as Situated, Sociocognitive Interaction References Collaborative Language Learning References Suggested Readings Computer‐Assisted Language Learning Effectiveness Research Introduction Research Findings on CALL Effectiveness Approaches to Evaluating CALL Effectiveness CALL Evaluation Argument Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Computer‐Assisted Pronunciation Teaching Technology for Teaching Segmentals (Vowels and Consonants) Technology for Teaching Suprasegmentals (Prosody, Intonation, Rhythm) Outlook for the Future References Suggested Readings Computer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) References Suggested Reading Online Resources Computer‐Mediated Communication and Second Language Development References Suggested Readings Note Construction Grammar Introduction Construction Grammar: The Central Ideas Applications Conclusion References Suggested Readings Online Resource Content‐Based Second/Foreign‐Language Instruction Introduction Three Main CBLI Models Implementation Issues Research Agenda Conclusion References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis and Affiliation and Alignment Introduction Distinguishing Affiliation and Alignment Creating an Environment for Alignment and Affiliation Disaligning and Disaffiliating Affiliating Without Aligning Aligning Without Affiliating Discussion References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis and Child Language Acquisition Competencies and Understandings Childhood: Interactions in Pre‐ and Early‐Years Primary School Settings References Suggested Reading Conversation Analysis and Classroom Interaction References Suggested Readings Note Conversation Analysis of Computer‐Mediated Interactions Future Trends References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics Introduction Basic Assumptions Historical Development Research Principles and Methods Objects of Research Findings References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis and Laughter Introduction The Interactional Environments of Laughter Laughter and Social Context Conclusion References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language Studies Introduction Compatibility of CA and L2 Studies Types of Studies CA Methodological and Procedural Positions in L2 Studies In Conclusion: Applying CA to L2 Studies References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition: CA‐SLA CA, SLA, and CA‐SLA Reconceptualizing Learning and Cognition Methodological Underpinnings Analyzing L2 Interactions and Learning Environments Analyzing L2 Learning Conclusion References Suggested Readings Conversation Analysis: Transcriptions and Data Transcriptions and Data Recordings and Data Transcription Specific Issues References Suggested Readings Corpus Analysis of Business English Corpora of Business English Linguistic Analyses of Business English Corpora Multidimensional Analysis of Business English Corpora References Suggested Readings Corpus Analysis in Forensic Linguistics Comparative Authorship Analysis Authorship Profiling Trademark Disputes Determination of Meaning Conclusion References Suggested Readings Corpus Analysis of Key Words Introduction Method: How Are Key Words Calculated? Problems, Limitations, and Extensions of the Technique Example Applications References Suggested Readings Corpus Analysis of Political Language Types of Corpus‐Assisted Studies Into the Language of Politics Potential Sources of Data Types of Research Objectives The Added Value of Using Corpora Modern Diachronic Corpus‐Assisted Discourse Studies (MD‐CADS) Research as Activism or Research for Knowledge's Own Sake? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching What Relevance Does Corpus Linguistics Have for Language Teaching? Corpus Linguistics in the Classroom: Options for Language Teachers Conclusions References Suggested Readings Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods Introduction Distinctive Collexeme Analysis Applications Conclusion References Suggested Readings Council of Europe Language Policy and Planning Introduction Policy Documents and Tools in Support of Plurilingual People Living in Multilingual Societies The European Centre for Modern Languages References Note Critical Analysis of Political Discourse References Suggested Readings Critical Pedagogy in Language Teaching References Suggested Readings Critical Period References Suggested Readings Cross‐Cultural Pragmatics Context Shaping Meaning Language Shaping Context Common Ground Fields of Application Conclusions References Suggested Readings Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition Terminology The Verification of CLI Main Findings Theoretical and Empirical Advances References Suggested Readings Note Cultural Approaches to Translation Introduction Translation From Cultures Translating for Cultures Translating Between Cultures References Suggested Readings

11  D Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction Introduction The Issues The Evidence The Problems and Challenges Summary and Future Directions References Suggested Reading Discourse and Identity Social Identities in Discourse Personal Identities in Narrative Digital, Networked, and Posthuman Identities References Suggested Readings

12  E Early Bilingualism Major Linguistic Developments in BFLA and ESLA Applied Aspects of Early Bilingualism References Suggested Readings English for Academic Purposes Introduction Generic or Specific Attributes in EAP? Approaches to EAP Conclusion References Suggested Readings English in Asian and European Higher Education References Suggested Readings Note English for Business Introduction Researching Written and Spoken Business English The Effects of Using English for Business English for Business in the Future References Suggested Readings English for Occupational Purposes Introduction Surveys in English for Occupational Purposes Analyzing Language and Interactions at Work English for Occupational Purposes in Different Workplace Settings The Social Dimension of English for Occupational Purposes Conclusion References English‐Only Movement Historical Background The Rise of the Contemporary English‐Only Movement Propositions 227 and 203 Proposition 58 and the Future References Suggested Readings Epistemology and Ontology Introduction Ontology Within Metaphysics Epistemology Theories of Knowledge in Mainstream and Second Language Research Constructivist Epistemology and Second Language Research Knowledge Knowledge of Second or Foreign Languages and Language Teachers' Knowledge References Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective Hymes's Theoretical Model “Doing Ethnography” Conclusion References Suggested Readings Explicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language Instruction What Is Explicit Knowledge? Isolated or Integrated Grammar Instruction? Grammar Explanation Other Ways of Explaining Grammar What to Explain Taking the Learner Into Account Conclusion References Suggested Readings

13  F First Language Vocabulary Acquisition References Suggested Readings Foreign Accent Why Is a Foreign Accent So Difficult to Overcome? Two Main Linguistic Sources of Foreign Accent: L1 Transfer and Universals Why Are Some Phenomena More Difficult to Learn Than Others? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Form‐Focused Instruction References Suggested Readings Note Formulaic Language and Collocation The Functions of Formulaic Language Acquisition of Formulaic Language Non‐Native Use of Formulaic Language Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Formulaic Sequences Definition Functions Evidence Theoretical Issues Formulaic Sequences in SLA The Future References Suggested Readings Frame Analysis Bateson's Conception of Frame “Frame,” “Keying,” and “Footing” Various Perspectives of Frame Analysis: Interactive Frame and Cognitive/Knowledge Frame Studies of Frame Analysis Conclusion References Suggested Readings Functional Approaches to Translation Historical Background Basic Concepts and Ideas of Skopos Theory Applications to Translator Training Conclusions References Suggested Readings

14  G Genre‐Based Language Teaching References Suggested Readings Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes Discourse and Genre Analysis Genre Structures and Features Genre and Community Genre Constellations Genre Pedagogies Critiques Conclusions References Suggested Readings Grammar in Academic Writing Noun Phrase Characteristics Thematization Personal Pronouns Tense Cohesion Hedging Intertextuality, Citation, and Knowledge Claims References Suggested Readings Grammar and Electronic Communication Introduction E‐Grammar in English Emoji Grammar E‐Grammar and Language Change E‐Grammar and Literacy References Suggested Readings Note

15  H Heritage Languages and Language Policy Defining Heritage Languages Defining HL Learners US Language Policy for Heritage Languages Looking Ahead References Suggested Readings Historical Pragmatics Introduction Approaches and Data Application Conclusion References Suggested Readings History of Language‐Teaching Methods Early History Grammar Translation Method Direct Method Audio‐Lingual Method Cognitive Approaches to Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching Conclusion References Suggested Readings History of Translation The Object of Inquiry Research Questions and Source Collection, Evaluation, and Interpretation Writing Translation History Sample Approaches to Translation History Toward Integrative Translation History References Suggested Readings

16  I Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms Theories of the Social Theories of the Sociomaterial Explorations in Sociomaterialism Conclusion References Suggested Readings Identity and Second Language Acquisition Theoretical Framework Identity on the SLA Agenda Key Directions in Identity Research Conclusion References Immersion Education Program Models and Outcomes Pedagogical Issues Conclusions References Suggested Readings Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning Introduction Reasons for Educational Innovation Innovation Implementation Barriers to Innovation Implementation The Importance of Secondary Innovations References Suggested Readings Instructed Second Language Acquisition References Suggested Readings Intelligibility in World Englishes References Suggested Readings Intercultural Competence Competence Models of Intercultural Competence Contexts and Applications Assessment or Measuring of Intercultural Competence References Suggested Readings Intercultural Interaction Introduction Culture and Achieving Understanding Culture and the Management of Relations Culture, Identity, and Personal Growth Competence in Intercultural Interaction References Suggested Readings Interlanguage Origins of the Concept of Interlanguage Defining Interlanguage The Relevant Data for the Study of Interlanguage The Revised Interlanguage Hypothesis References Suggested Readings International Phonetic Alphabet Introduction History The International Phonetic Alphabet, English Spelling, and Dictionaries The International Phonetic Alphabet Itself The International Phonetic Alphabet on the Computer Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Interviews in Qualitative Research Forms of Interviewing in Qualitative Research Designing Qualitative Studies That Use Interviews Asking Questions Issues in Conducting Interviews Theorizing Interviews Transcribing and Analyzing Interview Data Quality in Interviewing The Future of Interview Research References Suggested Readings Online Resources

17  K Knowledge Base of Language Teachers Teachers' Knowledge About Language Teachers' Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition Teachers' Identities, Moral Values, and Critical Consciousness Language Teachers' Sense Making in Action References Suggested Readings

18  L Language, Culture, and Context An Integrative View of Language Language and Culture Cultural Dimensions of Language The Language–Culture Nexus in Context References Suggested Reading Note Language and Globalization References Suggested Readings Note Language and Identity References Suggested Readings Language Ideology in the Discourse of Popular Culture References Suggested Readings Language Ideology and Public Discourse Language Ideology and Public Discourse Language Ideologies: Differences and Commonalities Public Versus Private? Moving Beyond Language: Current Developments in Language Ideology Research References Suggested Readings Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution References Suggested Readings Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk’s Contribution References Suggested Reading Note Language Program Evaluation Introduction to Program Evaluation The Emergence of Language Program Evaluation Contemporary Impetus for Language Program Evaluation Characteristics of Contemporary Program Evaluation References Suggested Readings Note Language Teaching and Learning: Quantitative Methods An Example Study Additional Considerations References Suggested Reading Appendix: Data Set Languaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language Learning Definition Collaborative Dialogue (CD) as a Source of Learning Contexts Implicated in the Quality and Quantity of CD Mediational Means Used Inseparability of Cognition and Emotion Conclusion References Suggested Reading Learner Beliefs in Second Language Learning The Beginnings The Classics Continuation of Research Along Two Lines Most Recent Research: Further Twists and Turns Conclusion: Challenges and Directions for Future Research References Suggested Readings Learner Corpora Learner Corpus Design Criteria Learner Corpus Typology Learner Corpus Methodology Learner Corpus Analysis Learner Corpus‐Based Applications References Suggested Readings Lexical Borrowing Notable Examples Factors That Encourage Lexical Borrowing The Adaptations of Borrowing Reactions to Lexical Borrowing The Implications of Lexical Borrowing for Foreign/Second Language Study Conclusion References Suggested Reading Lexical Priming References Note Lexicogrammar Introduction Systemic Functional Linguistics Corpus Linguistics References Suggested Reading Linguaculture References Suggested Readings Lingua Franca and Language of Wider Communication References Suggested Readings Note Linguistic Imperialism Expansion Through Linguistic Imperialism Ongoing Tensions Between Linguistic Imperialism and Resistance References Suggested Readings Linguistic Landscape Studies Introduction Emerging Themes Methodology Outlook and Further Expansion References Suggested Readings

19  M Materials Development Introduction What Materials Do Language Learners Need? Should Materials Be Forms or Meaning Focused? Should Materials Be Contrived or Authentic? Should Learners Be Asked to Practice or to Use the Language? Should Materials Be Based on Theories of Language Acquisition? Should Materials Be Global or Local? What Role Can Technology Play in Facilitating Language Acquisition? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Mixed Methods Stances on Mixing Paradigms Purposes of Mixing Methods Mixed Methods Research Designs Mixed Methods Data Analysis Quality Issues in Mixing Methods Using Mixed Methods in Applied Linguistics Research References Suggested Readings Mobile-Assisted Language Learning MALL in Relation to CALL Typical Applications Reading and Listening Speaking and Writing Location‐Specific Language Learning Support for Informal Learning Control Over Learning Mobile Learners Accessibility and Usability MALL Within Mobile Learning Summary References Suggested Readings Motivation in Second Language Acquisition References Suggested Readings Move Analysis Move Analysis as an Analytical Approach Move Analysis as a Pedagogical Approach Move Analysis Crossing Boundaries References Suggested Readings Note Multicompetence Premises of Multicompetence Multicompetence and SLA Methodology Effects of the L2 on the L2 User Bilingual Cognition Multicompetence and Language Teaching Conclusions References Suggested Readings Multilingualism and the Internet Introduction Defining the Internet Different Ways of Using the Internet as a Source of Multilingual Data Paradigms of Research on Multilingualism on the Internet Multilingual Language Settings on the Internet Multilingual Internet Discourse as Heteroglossia Multilingualism on the Internet and Language Learning Conclusion References Suggested Readings Multilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness Introduction: Multilingualism and General Cognitive Advantages Types of Metalinguistic Awareness Conditions Affecting the Development or Deployment of Metalinguistic Awareness Metalinguistic Awareness: Learning to Read, Learning Other Languages References Suggested Readings Multimodal Discourse Analysis References Suggested Readings Multimodal Interaction Analysis Background: Multimodal Interaction Analysis Unit of Analysis Modal Density Foreground–Background Continuum of Attention/Awareness Using Multimodal Interaction Analysis as a Method References Suggested Readings Multimodality and Systemic Functional Analysis Introduction What Is SF Theory? SF‐MDA Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Multimodal Teaching and Learning Multimodality Teaching Learning Teaching and Learning with L2 Students References Suggested Readings Note

20  N Natural Language Processing and Language Learning NLP and the Analysis of Learner Language NLP and the Analysis of Native Language for Learners References Suggested Readings Needs Analysis A Rationale for Needs Analysis Units of Analysis in NA Stage 1 of a Task‐Based NA: Identifying Target Tasks Stage 2 of a Task‐Based NA: Analysis of Target Discourse From NA to Syllabus References Suggested Readings Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific Purposes Introduction The Role and Importance of Needs Analysis Trends in Scope and Methods From Needs Analysis to Specification of Syllabus Content The Role of Theory Issues in Needs Analysis Conclusion References New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension Literacy as Deixis How Should We Conceptualize Literacy as a Deictic Construct? A Dual‐Level Theory of New Literacies The New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension What Do We Know About the New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension? What Do We Need to Know About the New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension? The Internet Is a Literacy Issue, Not a Technology Issue Literacy Is the Internet—the Internet Is Literacy References Suggested Readings Note Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers Background Birth of the Non‐Native Speaker Movement Reflecting on Achievements References Online Resources

21  O Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition Research Introduction Word Monitoring Cross‐Modal Priming Self‐Paced Reading/Listening Self‐Paced Listening With Picture Verification Comparison Between the Tasks: Advantages and Disadvantages References Suggested Readings Online Resources Note Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie References Suggested Readings

22  P Paired and Group Oral Assessment References Suggested Readings Note Pattern Grammar Introduction Origins The COBUILD Publications Applications of Pattern Grammar Pattern Grammar and Language Theory References Phonetics and Phonology: Historical Overview Terminology Pre‐19th‐Century Phonetics Phonetics and Phonology in the 19th Century Phonetics and Phonology in the 20th Century Instrumental Phonetics The International Phonetic Association and Alphabet SIL International Phonology References Suggested Readings Note Politeness References Suggested Readings Positivism and Postpositivism A Discipline of Design Historically Variable Modes of Applied Linguistics The Coherence of the Field References Suggested Readings Poststructuralism Two Critical Incidents Poststructuralist Theories of Language, Identity, and Investment Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom Practice Points of Contention and Sites of Innovation References Pragmatic Markers Introduction: On the Nature of Pragmatic Markers The Structure of Pragmatic Markers Do Pragmatic Markers Have a Meaning? Pragmatic Markers, General Extenders, and Second Language Acquisition References Pragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated Communication Medium‐Specific Features of ACMD The Variation in Pragmatic Features in ACMC Contexts Pragmatic Features of ACMC in L2 Learning Contexts Conclusion References Suggested Readings Pragmatics of Lingua Franca Interaction What Is a Lingua Franca? Pragmatics and Discourse‐Related Studies of ELF: Some Research Findings Conclusion References Suggested Readings Pragmatics Research Methods Observational Data Collection Procedures Elicited Data Collection Procedures Experimental Collection Procedures Data Analysis References Suggested Readings Pragmatic Transfer Acknowledgment References Suggested Readings Pronunciation Assessment Introduction Purposes of Assessing Pronunciation Methods of Pronunciation Assessment Challenges in Defining the Construct Conclusion References Suggested Readings Pronunciation Teaching Methods and Techniques Understanding the Basic Features of Pronunciation in English Setting Realistic Goals for Instruction Planning Instruction Techniques, Tools, and Technology References Suggested Readings

23  Q Qualitative Corpus Analysis Definition and Philosophy Evolution of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Corpus Analysis Methodological Foundations Corpus Design Corpus Markup and Annotation Data Retrieval Data Interpretation Practical Applications Conclusions References Suggested Readings Qualitative Research on Information and Communication Technology Current Areas of Inquiry in ICT Research Considerations of Qualitative Methods in ICT Settings New Demands in Qualitative Research in ICT Conclusion References Suggested Readings Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research Formulating Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research Traditions in Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research Observing Language Use in Context Issues and Tools in Data Collection Recent Trends in Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research References Suggested Readings Quantitative Methods Introduction Theoretical Assumptions Formulating the Research Question Following a Systematic Approach Factorial Designs Answering the Research Question References Suggested Readings

24  R Rating Oral Language Rating Scales Rater Training Rating Processes Rater Bias Patterns Future Trends References Suggested Readings Rating Scales and Rubrics in Language Assessment Definition and Purpose Types and Uses Approaches to Rating Scale Development Issues and Challenges References Suggested Readings Note Research Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language Acquisition Zone of Proximal Development Dynamic Assessment Inner Speech Private Speech The Regulatory Function of Speech Gesture Social Situation of Development Historical/Theoretical References Suggested Readings Note Rhetorical Discourse Analysis Introduction The Tradition of Rhetoric Discourse Analysis Rhetorical Discourse Analysis Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in Rhetorical Criticism Rhetorical Discourse Analysis and Rhetoric/Composition Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in the Study of Language Structure and Use Conclusion References Suggested Readings Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning Introduction: Linguistic Human Rights as Part of Language Policy Supplying or Denying Linguistic Human Rights: Good or Bad Language Policy Circles Which Demands Are Justified? Is Speaking a Minority Language a Handicap to Get Rid Of? When Can an LHR Approach “Deliver”? References Suggested Reading Online Resource Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction Types of Corrective Feedback Functions of Corrective Feedback Effects of Corrective Feedback Future Directions References Suggested Readings Russification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet Era References Suggested Reading

25  S Study Abroad References Suggested Readings Online Resources Systemic Functional Linguistics Conceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday's Three Metafunctions of Language The Ideational Metafunction and Field Resources The Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources The Textual Metafunction and Mode Resources References Suggested Readings

26  T Task‐Based Language Assessment Approaches to TBLA Current Applications of TBLA Issues in TBLA Conclusion References Suggested Readings Online Resources Note Task‐Based Learning: Cognitive Underpinnings Cognitive Processes in Task‐Based Learning Design Characteristics Affecting the Cognitive Processing Demands of Tasks Effects of Cumulative Increases in the Cognitive Demands of Tasks References Suggested Readings Teacher Education for Multilingual Education References Suggested Readings Teaching Culture and Intercultural Competence What Is Culture? Teaching Culture: Modernist Perspectives Intercultural Competence Teaching Culture: Postmodernist Perspectives Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Teaching Reading: Foundations and Practices Research on Reading with Implications for Instruction Emphases for Reading Instruction Concluding Comments References Suggested Reading Teaching Speaking Speaking Under Time Pressure What to Teach? How to Teach? Teaching Speaking and Theories of SLA References Suggested Readings Teaching Vocabulary Which Words Should Be Learned? What Are the Vocabulary Learning Goals? How Will Vocabulary Be Learned in the Course? How Will Vocabulary Learning Be Assessed? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Theses and Dissertations in English for Specific Purposes References Suggested Readings Third Language Acquisition The Scope of Third Language Acquisition Diversity of Third Language Acquisition Main Trends in Third Language Acquisition Research Final Remarks References Suggested Readings Translanguaging Introduction Translanguaging and Language Theory Translanguaging in Education Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Translation Theory General Considerations About Theory Theoretical Principles Currently Accepted in Translation Studies Conclusions Implied by These Theoretical Principles Difficulties in Formulating Translation Theory References

27  U Uses of Language Assessments Introduction Classification of Test Uses Test Use and Test Validity Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Using the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language Classrooms References Suggested Reading

28  V Validation of Language Assessments The Consensus View of Validation Major Approaches to Validation in Language Assessment Use‐Specific Validation Frameworks Prevailing Concerns in Validation Research References Varieties of English in Asia References Suggested Readings Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes Investigating Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes Teaching and Learning Vocabulary and Language for Specialized Purposes References Suggested Readings Online Resources Vocabulary Learning Strategies What VLS Do Students Use? Are VLS Useful? Person, Task, Context, and Strategies Conclusions References Suggested Readings Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition Meaning in the Internal Thinking/Languaging System Methodological Approach Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition and Development Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note

29  W Washback in Language Assessment References Suggested Readings World Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages TESOL in World Englishes: Early Years World Englishes in TESOL: Early Years World Englishes and TESOL in the 21st Century Conclusion References Suggested Readings Writing and Language for Specific Purposes Writing Needs Across LSP Domains Research in Writing and LSP Pedagogy in Writing and LSP References Suggested Readings

30  Index

31  End User License Agreement