Читать книгу Semiconductor Basics - George Domingo - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 A sinusoidal wave is described in several ways: frequency, wavele...Figure 1.2 William Wollaston (left) looked at the sun's light through a pris...Figure 1.3 The sun’s spectrum through a prism shows dark lines: wavelengths ...Figure 1.4 The spectrum from any gas shows similar but different missing lin...Figure 1.5 Dmitri Mendeleev and the periodic table with the elements known i...Figure 1.6 The spectrum of the hydrogen atom on the left shows the absorptio...Figure 1.7 Johann Balmer (left) found a mathematical relation for hydrogen's...Figure 1.8 Around 1905, Albert Einstein came up with the concept that light ...Figure 1.9 Joseph John Thomson and his cathode ray tube.Figure 1.10 Ernest Rutherford, with his experiment that bombarded alpha part...Figure 1.11 Robert Millikan, with his oil‐drop experiment, measured the elec...Figure 1.12 Niels Bohr (left) postulated the planetary model of the atom. Wo...Figure 1.13 The Bohr planetary model of an atom has discrete and stable orbi...Figure 1.14 The observed energy lines of the hydrogen atom corresponding to ...Figure 1.15 The scientific and experimental work that led to the Bohr planet...Figure 1.16 Subshell electron capacity. Notice that the number of sites in e...Figure 1.17 Portion of the periodic table emphasizing elements used in semic...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Energy levels in a Bohr atom (left) corresponding to the Bohr ene...Figure 2.2 When two hydrogen atoms are so close that they form a single syst...Figure 2.3 From energy levels in a gas where the electrons in the atoms are ...Figure 2.4 Atomic levels split into bands as the interatomic distance betwee...Figure 2.5 In an insulator, the valence band is full of electrons, the condu...Figure 2.6 If the valence band is not full of electrons, there is a lot of s...Figure 2.7 Even if the valence band is full, if the conduction band encroach...Figure 2.8 The valence band in a semiconductor is completely full, the condu...Figure 2.9 Electron and hole concentrations in Si and GaAs change drasticall...Figure 2.10 Electrons in the conduction band are free to move, while those i...Figure 2.11 There is a large difference in energy gaps in semiconductors, fr...Figure 2.12 Enrico Fermi (left) and Paul Dirac (right), who developed the st...Figure 2.13 The probability that electrons are free as a function of the dif...Figure 2.14 The F‐D function at room temperature.Figure 2.15 The F‐D functions on the side of the energy bands of insulators ...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Diamond crystal structure of silicon and germanium. The black bal...Figure 3.2 Clemens Winkler, who discovered the element germanium.Figure 3.3 John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain at Bell labs ...Figure 3.4 The zincblende structure of GaAs is very similar to that of Si, t...Figure 3.5 The unit structure of CdTe shows how the cadmium, valence two, an...Figure 3.6 The silicon atom has four electrons in the outer shell, shells 3s...Figure 3.7 A two‐dimensional representation of the silicon crystal showing h...Figure 3.8 A lonely Sb atom in a sea of Si atoms bonds to the surrounding Si...Figure 3.9 Energy diagram of a semiconductor doped with donor atoms. At abso...Figure 3.10 The boron atom surrounded by a huge number of Si atoms takes the...Figure 3.11 The energy of the boron empty bond is very close to the valence ...Figure 3.12 the resistivity of n‐ and p‐type silicon changes drastically as ...Figure 3.13 Point defects in semiconductors, interstitial atoms or vacancies...Figure 3.14 Line dislocations, adding or losing a plane of atoms, also cause...Figure 3.15 There are many native and doped impurities in Si that have very ...Figure 3.16 The Fermi level in n‐ and p‐type semiconductors at 0 K are in th...Figure 3.17 Intrinsic and doped semiconductors energy bands at 300 K. In the...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Hershel’s experiment consisted of placing a thermometer beyond th...Figure 4.2 The entire radiation spectrum goes from gamma to radio waves, and...Figure 4.3 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, who studied electromagnetic waves, was rew...Figure 4.4 The sun's radiation spectrum is strongest in the range of wavelen...Figure 4.5 The earth’s atmosphere is opaque except in the visible range and ...Figure 4.6 Visible and infrared photographs comparing the cold body of a sco...Figure 4.7 On the right the man hides his arm with a plastic bag. The arm is...Figure 4.8 This infrared image of houses shows where heat is lost due to lac...Figure 4.9 The Eagle nebula captured by the Hubble telescope using the visib...Figure 4.10 At very close to absolute zero all the electrons from the donor ...Figure 4.11 A photon with energy greater than 0.054 eV hits the As‐doped sil...Figure 4.12 Cross‐section of an arsenic doped infrared detector showing the ...Figure 4.13 A photograph of the contacts and indium bumps that define and co...Figure 4.14 A completed detector assembly with the detector array on top of ...Figure 4.15 The primary mirror of the Jack Webb telescope consists of very l...Figure 4.16 The reflection and refraction of light as it moves from air to w...Figure 4.17 Light dispersion as it crosses a prism, separating the different...Figure 4.18 Gustav Kirchhoff defined the term “blackbody,” an object which w...Figure 4.19 Max Planck solved the radiation problem by assuming that energie...Figure 4.20 The spectral emittance of a blackbody as a function of wavelengt...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 If a box full of sand is placed adjacent to an empty one, the san...Figure 5.2 An n‐type semiconductor at room temperature has lots of electrons...Figure 5.3 When there is no separation between the p‐ and n‐type semiconduct...Figure 5.4 A positive potential in the n‐type semiconductor pulls electrons ...Figure 5.5 A positive potential applied to the p‐type semiconductor attracts...Figure 5.6 The characteristic curves of a pn‐junction show current increasin...Figure 5.7 The analogy of the sand boxes with a tilt toward the full box, re...Figure 5.8 The symbol for a diode showing the direction of the current when ...Figure 5.9 Diode characteristics showing the turn‐on voltage, or the knee. N...Figure 5.10 Symbols for Schottky and Zener diodes.Figure 5.11 The water in the small container on the right will boil over int...Figure 5.12 A classical ball will cross the barrier only if its energy is hi...Figure 5.13 In quantum mechanics the probability of finding an electron is e...Figure 5.14 A Zener diode has such a thin transition region (A), that electr...Figure 5.15 The tunnel diode characteristics show a high reverse bias curren...Figure 5.16 The pn‐junction at 0 K has all the levels below the Fermi level ...Figure 5.17 The same pn‐junction as in Figure 5.16 but now at 300 K it has e...Figure 5.18 If the p‐type semiconductor has half the concentration of impuri...Figure 5.19 The vacuum level E_VA is the same for all materials. The Fermi le...Figure 5.20 The Shockey diode under the forward bias condition (D) the barri...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 A fluidic analogue of an electrical circuit with resistance to th...Figure 6.2 Resistors in series (left) divides the voltage and in parallel (r...Figure 6.3 A flexible membrane stores water. Water flows almost instantaneou...Figure 6.4 When I turn the pump on, there is current through the sand box an...Figure 6.5 A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by an insul...Figure 6.6 An inductor stores electric energy in the form of a magnetic fiel...Figure 6.7 When the pump is turned on, the water wheel starts moving, first ...Figure 6.8 The 120 V electrical oscillating voltage, AC, in the USA.Figure 6.9 A transformer consists of two coils sharing the same magnetic cor...Figure 6.10 Using transformers in an electrical distribution system we can e...Figure 6.11 The sinusoidal current through a resistor is in phase with the v...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 When a photon strikes the transition region of a solar cell the e...Figure 7.2 A rectifier circuit only lets the positive swing of the current p...Figure 7.3 A capacitor in parallel with a resistor stores charges during the...Figure 7.4 A full‐wave rectifier with a smoothing capacitor uses both positi...Figure 7.5 Full‐wave rectification using the middle tap of a transformer.Figure 7.6 A reverse current protection circuit prevents damage to the delic...Figure 7.7 A clamping circuit shifts the sinusoidal wave so that the entire ...Figure 7.8 A voltage clipper prevents the output voltage going over a specif...Figure 7.9 A half‐wave voltage doubler circuit results in an output voltage ...Figure 7.10 A simplified equivalent circuit for a voltage doubler.Figure 7.11 A circuit that makes the output voltage four times as high as th...Figure 7.12 Diodes are used to bypass damaged solar cell panels.Figure 7.13 A voltage clipper using Zener diodes can clip the voltage depend...Figure 7.14 An equivalent diode rectifier circuit when the diode is reversed...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 A small water flow on the upper pipe controls a much larger flow ...Figure 8.2 The structure of an npn‐transistor consists of a narrow p‐type se...Figure 8.3 When we apply external voltages to an npn‐transistor the internal...Figure 8.4 Some balls fall from a box full of ping‐pong balls (electrons) on...Figure 8.5 The collector current, I_c is proportional to the emitter current,...Figure 8.6 Adding a sinusoidal signal to the base of a transistor properly b...Figure 8.7 Symbols for pnp‐ and npn‐transistors. The arrows show the directi...Figure 8.8 Transistor performance is graphically given by the collector curr...Figure 8.9 The structure of an n‐type JFET consists of one type of semicondu...Figure 8.10 A JFET with a positive voltage at the gates creates two depletio...Figure 8.11 The voltage between the drain and the gate is different to that ...Figure 8.12 The idealized characteristics of a pnp JFET show three distinct ...Figure 8.13 The pinch‐off voltage grows and moves closer to the source as th...Figure 8.14 In a MOSFET one of the two semiconductor gates in a JFET is repl...Figure 8.15 If the gate of a p‐type MOSFET is positive, electrons are attrac...Figure 8.16 A MOSFET showing the region with electrons in the channel under ...Figure 8.17 Idealized source to drain current as a function of the drain vol...Figure 8.18 In a depletion mode MOSFET the channel is made more resistive by...Figure 8.19 The relationships of the variety of transistors discussed in thi...Figure 8.20 The energy bands in an npn‐transistor (left) and what happens to...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 The emitter feedback bias circuit has the highest stability as th...Figure 9.2 This flow diagram shows how the emitter negative feedback stabili...Figure 9.3 Emitter feedback bias circuit with the resistor values we need to...Figure 9.4 The load line that determines the output voltage–current relation...Figure 9.5 By adding a sinusoidal signal using capacitors we can modulate th...Figure 9.6 From a sinusoidal source point of view the capacitors and the bat...Figure 9.7 The AC equivalent circuit of a transistor consisting of an input ...Figure 9.8 We can superimpose the sinusoidal signals on the transistor chara...Figure 9.9 The fixed bias circuit is simpler than the collector feedback cir...Figure 9.10 The load line on the transistor characteristic curves for a fixe...Figure 9.11 The fixed bias circuit with the resistance values we have calcul...Figure 9.12 The collector feedback bias circuit is a different way of stabil...Figure 9.13 Stabilization diagram of the collector feedback circuit.Figure 9.14 By connecting two transistor circuits with appropriate capacitor...Figure 9.15 By adding a potentiometer and a bypass capacitor (both in red) t...Figure 9.16 The internal circuit of an OpAmp, the Fairchild 741.Figure 9.17 The symbol for an OpAmp with two supply voltages, one positive a...Figure 9.18 A differential input amplifier eliminates many of the noise prob...Figure 9.19 A current mirror ensures that the output current, I_C2, is the sa...Figure 9.20 The ideal OpAmp has an infinite resistance, zero output resistan...Figure 9.21 An inverting OpAmp has a gain defined by the ratio of the two re...Figure 9.22 A differential amplifier provides a gain defined by the ratio of...Figure 9.23 The collector feedback bias circuit is a different way of stabil...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Dr. Jan Czochralski developed a method of growing very pure and ...Figure 10.2 The Czochralski method to grow a silicon boule. A seed pulls the...Figure 10.3 In the float‐zone growth method a heating coil moves up and down...Figure 10.4 Dr. Robert Noyce, observing the photographic process in a darkro...Figure 10.5 Cross‐section of the planar transistor we want to build. The p‐t...Figure 10.6 Top view of the aluminum lines connecting the different silicon ...Figure 10.7 First four steps of transistor fabrication: the epitaxial layer ...Figure 10.8 The next step is to photographically illuminate the portion of t...Figure 10.9 The semiconductor after the illuminated part of the photoresist ...Figure 10.10 We remove the oxide with ammonium fluoride and the excess photo...Figure 10.11 The semiconductor, with the desired oxide removed, is located i...Figure 10.12 The impurity concertation at the end of the deposition (curve a...Figure 10.13 An ion implanter consists of an ion source, a magnet to separat...Figure 10.14 The impurity concentration in an implanted wafer as a function ...Figure 10.15 Using an ion implanter we fabricate the emitter region using a ...Figure 10.16 Mask used to create the p+ (left) and n+ (right) regions.Figure 10.17 A wafer covered with a metal layer makes contact with all the n...Figure 10.18 The aluminum mask connects each contact on the wafer to areas w...Figure 10.19 Modern electronic integrated circuits use multiple levels of in...Figure 10.20 Fabrication of a resistor. Cross‐section of an integrated resis...Figure 10.21 Another way to fabricate a resistor is to use the epitaxial lay...Figure 10.22 Capacitors are fabricated using the same techniques as MOSFETs ...Figure 10.23 Spiral inductors can also be fabricated in a spiral form, as a ...Figure 10.24 A fully processed wafer.Figure 10.25 A modern probe tester (left) and the very thin conductive probe...Figure 10.26 Single electronic device packaging with the three inputs for em...Figure 10.27 In a flat package the chip sits in the middle and is bonded to ...Figure 10.28 Packaging for devices with many inputs and outputs.Figure 10.29 A sketch of the flip bonding process (left) and a completed pac...Figure 10.30 The minimum design rules compared to typical impurities that ca...Figure 10.31 Effect on yield of defects as a function of chip size.Figure 10.32 A typical laminar flow clean room keeps the air flow vertically...Figure 10.33 Left, a stepper photolithography system (ASM Lithography Co.). ...Figure 10.34 1970 to 2016 progress in the transistor count per square inch....Figure 10.35 Three ways we can slice the diamond crystal structure.Figure 10.36 The flats in different locations around the periphery of the wa...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 George Boole developed the symbolic logic language called Boolea...Figure 11.2 Symbols of normally OFF (left) and normally ON (right) relays.Figure 11.3 The logic circuit AND using two normally closed relays (top left...Figure 11.4 The logic circuit OR using relays (left), its truth table (middl...Figure 11.5 The logic circuit NOT using a relay (left), the truth table (mid...Figure 11.6 The XOR truth table (left) and its symbol (right). For the outpu...Figure 11.7 The seven logic symbols we use in designing digital electronic c...Figure 11.8 Diode implementation of the AND function (left), the truth table...Figure 11.9 Diode implementation of an OR function (right) with the truth ta...Figure 11.10 Symbols for the n‐ (left) and p‐ (right) MOSFETs. The p‐MOSFET ...Figure 11.11 The NOT circuit using CMOS with the truth table and its symbol....Figure 11.12 The two states of the OR circuit, with V_in OFF on the left and ...Figure 11.13 The NOR circuit (left), the truth table (top right), and the NO...Figure 11.14 The switching status of the four MOSFET circuits as the two inp...Figure 11.15 The NAND circuit (left) with the truth table (top right) and it...Figure 11.16 The CMOS switching status as the inputs go independently from 0...Figure 11.17 The logic function XNOR, its truth table, and its symbol.Figure 11.18 The half adder circuit (left), the truth table (right), and its...Figure 11.19 The full adder with the truth table and the new symbol can be c...Figure 11.20 Adding two three‐digit numbers. We use as many full adders as t...Figure 11.21 How elementary (left) and high school students (right) subtract...Figure 11.22 Step‐by‐step subtraction of two digital numbers.Figure 11.23 The half subtractor circuit (left), the truth table (top right)...Figure 11.24 Full subtractor (top left), its symbol (lower left), and the tr...Figure 11.25 Flip‐flop (left) and latch (middle) modules, their symbol, and ...Figure 11.26 A 3 × 3 shift register.Figure 11.27 Electrical path of Figure 11.26 when R2 is ON and all the other...Figure 11.28 The multiplication of two digital numbers is the same as in the...Figure 11.29 The output of a device driven by a perfect square input pulse (...Figure 11.30 The half adder module.Figure 11.31 The development of the truth table of the full adder.Figure 11.32 A full adder with the option to add or subtract the numbers dep...Figure 11.33 How we divide in the decimal (left) and the digital (right) sys...Figure 11.34 The author with a symbolic logic machine designed in 1962 using...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A MUX selects one of the many inputs, like a rotary switch. The ...Figure 12.2 A 2 to 1 MUX implementation using two ANDs, one NOT, and one OR ...Figure 12.3 Implementation of a 4 to 1 MUX, using ANDs and NOTs. The two con...Figure 12.4 An 8 to 1 MUX can be implemented by using smaller MUXs. Control ...Figure 12.5 A 1 to 4 DEMUX using AND and NOT modules with the symbol on the ...Figure 12.6 8 to 1 DEMUX constructed using smaller size DEMUXs.Figure 12.7 The register is composed of many latches with the non‐asterisk o...Figure 12.8 To transfer data from register 1 to register 2, we turn ON the s...Figure 12.9 We can transfer the data faster from one register to another by ...Figure 12.10 Many waveforms can be generated from the main system clock, the...Figure 12.11 As waveforms move across the electronic system, there are timin...Figure 12.12 The rise and fall times of pulses limit the speed of the electr...Figure 12.13 A typical memory unit cell consists of a flip‐flop in the cente...Figure 12.14 When the word line is 1, the CMOSs M1 and M4 are shorted, and t...Figure 12.15 The CMOS in Figures 12.13 and 12.14 are replaced by switches. W...Figure 12.16 A memory chip architecture consists of a matrix of unit cells (...Figure 12.17 The array of DRAM cells is addressed by a single input line (ho...Figure 12.18 The capacitor charges initially to the full voltage, V_CC, but i...Figure 12.19 A ROM consists of CMOS arranged in such a way as to ensure that...Figure 12.20 Switch representation of the ROM when one of the word lines, WL...Figure 12.21 A PROM has fuses connecting the sources to the bit lines. These...Figure 12.22 The EPROM consists of a regular MOSFET with a completely isolat...Figure 12.23 Implementation of a 2 to 1 MUX using three NANDs and one NOT mo...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 A simple photoconductor consists of a semiconductor with two con...Figure 13.2 Radiation shining on a reversed‐biased diode creates an electron...Figure 13.3 The PIN diode structure consist of a p‐ and an n‐region separate...Figure 13.4 Both MASERs and LASERs work with the idea that electrons that ar...Figure 13.5 In a coherent light (left) all the waves A, B, and C are exactly...Figure 13.6 The beam of light bounces inside the cavity with one fully refle...Figure 13.7 A ruby LASER in a reflective cavity surrounded by a light coil t...Figure 13.8 The internal voltage for a degenerate semiconductor diode is lar...Figure 13.9 On the left we have a highly doped pn‐junction. When we forward ...Figure 13.10 In a LASER semiconductor, the reflective properties of the tran...Figure 13.11 Some methods to confine the beam inside the semiconductor cavit...Figure 13.12 Typical system for LASER scanning.Figure 13.13 The spontaneous recombination of electrons and holes at the jun...Figure 13.14 A typical detector readout array with as many inputs as detecto...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Basic components and interconnections of a modern computer.Figure 14.2 Memories in a typical laptop. The closer the memories are to the...Figure 14.3 Symbol for the ALU.Figure 14.4 The CPU processes an operation sequentially and when it finishes...Figure 14.5 The main components of an LCD. The liquid crystal is in the midd...Figure 14.6 Molecule of a liquid crystal consisting of two hexagonal benzene...Figure 14.7 The three phases of a liquid crystal: solid at 0 °C, liquid crys...Figure 14.8 The liquid crystal molecules align themselves with the two conta...Figure 14.9 A partial matrix of CMOS switches that turn ON and OFF each of t...Figure 14.10 A partial array showing, not to scale, the portions of the poly...Figure 14.11 Top: a pair of polarizers, A and B. Both are polarized in the s...Figure 14.12 The transistor of the red pixel is OFF, scattering the light in...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Analogue computer at Northwestern University in the 1960s with D...Figure 15.2 Dr. Gordon Moore, past CEO of Intel, most famous for Moore’s law...Figure 15.3 The number of transistors in a millimeter square space as a func...Figure 15.4 The growth of the number of transistors in an integrated chip be...Figure 15.5 Processor growth in the last 40 yearsFigure 15.6 A FET and some designs rules that are needed to ensure that key ...Figure 15.7 Sketch of an optical projection system (left) and the resulting ...Figure 15.8 Crystallographic structures of carbon in the graphite state (A a...Figure 15.9 An IBM quantum computer.Figure 15.10 An n‐MOS and p‐MOS fabricated on top of an insulating substrate...Figure 15.11 In a vertical integration process we deposit more than one laye...Figure 15.12 An example of multiple metallic layer interconnects.Figure 15.13 Sketch of a FinFET. The semiconductor is a very thin vertical s...Figure 15.14 The tunnel FET and energy bands when the TFET is reversed biase...