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ABBOT, GEORGE

(b. 29 Oct. 1562 at Guildford, Surrey, England; d. 4 Aug. 1633 at Croydon, Surrey, aged 70). A clothworker’s son and Church of ENGLAND clergyman, Abbot was appointed bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1609), bishop of London (1610), and archbishop of CANTERBURY and privy councillor (1611) by JAMES VI/I. He lost favour with the king in 1613 for opposing annulment of the countess of Essex’s marriage (see SOMERSET, ROBERT EARL OF). As a CALVINIST who tolerated moderate PURITANISM, Abbot welcomed the condemnation of ARMINIANISM in 1619 by the international Synod of Dort in the Dutch Republic. In July 1621 he accidentally killed a gamekeeper with a crossbow while hunting. Thereafter he was frequently taunted about the incident.

Abbot was disregarded by CHARLES I (king from 1625) who preferred advice from the anti‐Puritan William LAUD. He was effectively suspended from office during 1627–8 for rejecting a royal order: he had refused to license publication of a sermon that advocated absolute obedience to the king.

ABDICATION CRISISEvents of 1936 which led EDWARD VIII to renounce his position as king of Great Britain and Ireland. On 16 Nov. Edward expressed determination to marry Wallis Simpson, an American socialite. The prime minister, Stanley BALDWIN, and archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Lang, judged it impermissible for the titular head of the Church of ENGLAND to wed a twice‐divorced woman. DOMINION premiers agreed. The British press refrained from reporting the matter until 3 Dec. By then the authorities had ruled out a morganatic marriage (i.e., Mrs Simpson remaining a commoner rather than becoming queen). Edward abdicated (11 Dec.) in favour of a brother (see GEORGE VI). He went abroad, as duke of Windsor, and married in June 1937.ABDICATION CRISIS AND IRISH FREE STATE

The premier, Éamon DE VALERA, opportunistically used the ABDICATION CRISIS (late 1936) to minimize the role of the British Crown. Meeting in emergency session, the Free State’s Parliament passed a constitutional amendment Act (11 Dec.) which removed all references to the Crown from the constitution (and thereby eliminated the Crown’s role in internal affairs, such as appointment of the premier and ministers by the governor‐general). The External Relations Act (12 Dec.) confirmed the abdication of EDWARD VIII and permitted his successors to represent the IFS in foreign relations. (The post of governor‐general was abolished in May 1937.)

This legislation prepared the way for de Valera’s 1937 CONSTITUTION, which instituted an elected president, although it remained unclear whether president or monarch was head of State. The situation was clarified in 1948 when the External Relations Act was repealed and a republic, outside the COMMONWEALTH, was declared (effective from 1949).

ABERCONWY, TREATY OFAgreed on 9 Nov. 1277 (at Aberconwy, GWYNEDD, NW Wales); between LLYWELYN AP GRUFFUDD, prince of Gwynedd, and EDWARD I, king of England; it followed Edward's 1277 invasion. Llywelyn retained the title PRINCE OF WALES, but was fined for disobedience; he conceded territories (including Y BERFEDDWLAD) and the release of DAFYDD AP GRUFFUDD (brother). See also ANGLO‐WELSH RELATIONS, 6TH–13TH CENTURIES.ABERDEEN

A city in NE Scotland. Centre of Aberdeen sheriffdom 12th century–1975; a unitary authority from 1996.

Founded as a BURGH by King DAVID I (between 1124 and 1132), Aberdeen (originally Brittonic, meaning ‘Mouth of the Don') became the principal port of NE Scotland, exporting hides, wool and fish to Continental Europe. After the local bishop's see was moved to Aberdeen (by 1132), a second burgh developed around the new cathedral. Universities were founded in 1495 (King's College) and 1593 (Marischal College) and united in 1860. SHIP‐BUILDING flourished in the late 18th century, and FISHING (cod‐trawling) from the 1880s to the late 20th century. The city expanded again from the 1970s as the principal centre of the oil industry. An institute of technology was upgraded as Robert Gordon University in 1992. See also NORTH SEA GAS AND OIL INDUSTRIES.

Est. popn: 1300, 2000; 1600, 10,000; 1800, 27,000; 1900, 153,000; 2000, 213,000.

ABERDEEN, 4TH EARL OF

(b. 28 Jan. 1784 at Edinburgh, Scotland; d. 14 Dec. 1860 at London, England, aged 76). Twice British foreign secretary; prime minister of a WHIG– PEELITE coalition 1852—5.

George Gordon was an orphan. His guardians, William PITT the Younger and Henry Dundas, arranged his education and introduced him to TORY politics. He inherited his earldom in 1801 and sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish representative peer from 1806.

As special ambassador to Austria (1813–14), Aberdeen was not conspicuously successful. He occupied himself with archaeology and estate management until called to be foreign secretary under the duke of WELLINGTON (1828–30), when he negotiated the borders of GREECE. Again foreign secretary (1841–6), in the ministry of Sir Robert PEEL, he conciliated the USA and improved relations with FRANCE.

When the Conservative Party split in 1846, Aberdeen supported Peel. A convinced ‘free trader’, he emerged as leader of the PEELITES (1850) and formed a coalition government (1852) with Lord RUSSELL, Lord PALMERSTON and W.E. GLADSTONE in key offices. The ministry lacked unity, Aberdeen appeared irresolute, and Great Britain drifted into the CRIMEAN WAR against his better judgement (1854). Mismanagement of the campaign forced his resignation in Jan. 1855. Succeeded by Palmerston.

ABERFAN DISASTERAccident on 21 Oct. 1966, when a coal tip (waste and sludge) at the village of Aberfan (near Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan, Wales) collapsed. The ensuing avalanche buried a school and neighbouring streets, killing 116 children and 28 adults. See also COAL INDUSTRY, WALES.ABERNETHY, TREATY OFThe submission (terms unknown), in autumn 1072 (at Abernethy, E Scotland), which was imposed on King MALCOLM III of Scotland by King WILLIAM I of England, who had invaded following Scottish raids. It was ineffective: Malcolm resumed raids. ROBERT CURTHOSE (1080) and King WILLIAM II (1091) tried to reimpose the agreement. Malcolm died while attacking N England in 1093. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS BEFORE 1290.ABJURATION ACTLegislation by the English Parliament, Jan. 1702, which required office‐holders and Church of ENGLAND clergy in England and Wales to take an abjuration oath (oath of renouncement) recognizing WILLIAM III as the rightful king and denying that the Stuart claimant ‘James III’ had any right. The Act was occasioned by the recent death of JAMES VII/II (Sept. 1701) and recognition of his son as king by Louis XIV of France. A modified oath was reimposed by later Acts, and replaced by a new oath of allegiance in 1858. See also JACOBITISM, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.ABLETT, NOAH(b. 4 Oct. 1883 at Ynys‐hir, Glamorgan, Wales; d. 3 Oct. 1935 at Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan, aged 52). Miners' leader; campaigner for confrontation between Capital and Labour (owners and employees). Ablett and colleagues wrote The Miners' Next Step (1912), a syndicalist manifesto which advocated the overthrow of coalowners by industrial action. See also TRADE UNIONISM, WALES; SYNDICALISM.ABORTION, GREAT BRITAINThe aborting (killing) of human foetuses was made illegal by the UK Parliament in 1861. Termination of pregnancies up to 28 weeks was permitted from 1968 under the 1967 Abortion Act (proposed by Liberal MP David Steel with support from the Labour government), and reduced to 24 weeks in 1990. Two doctors were required to certify that a woman would be harmed mentally or physically by giving birth. By end 2015, about 8.5 million foetuses had been aborted. Feminists have strongly opposed further restrictions on abortion, while the Catholic Church has consistently opposed its provision.ABORTION, IRELAND

Abortion was made illegal in Ireland by the UK Parliament in 1861. In the Republic of Ireland in 1983, in response to pressure for decriminalization and following a referendum, unborn children were also protected by a constitutional amendment. However, abortion remained contentious, with the Catholic Church strongly opposed.

In March 1992 the Republic’s Supreme Court ruled that abortion was allowed when a mother’s life was in danger, including by risk of suicide. This prompted referendums on three further amendments (Nov. 1992). Two were accepted, allowing procurement of abortions abroad and distribution of information about services in other jurisdictions. (The rejected amendment would have prohibited abortion for risk of suicide.) In 2002 another referendum sought prohibition of abortion for risk of suicide, and proposed new penalties for performing or assisting an abortion. It was narrowly rejected (50.42% to 49.58%).

In 2010 the European Court of Human Rights accepted that there was no right to an abortion in the Republic, but advised that clarification was needed about permissible medical circumstances for abortions. That judgment and the death (2012) of a woman denied an abortion on medical grounds resulted in legislation (2013) specifying allowable medical circumstances, including risk of suicide.

After the 2016 election the FINE GAEL‐led government of Enda KENNY held a Citizens’ Assembly to consider changes to the 1983 amendment. Its report (June 2017) recommended liberalization. A referendum, held under Kenny’s successor Leo VARADKAR, approved replacement of the amendment with authorization for abortion (May 2018). Legislation in Dec. 2018 repealed the 2013 Act and allowed abortions up to 12 weeks’ gestation.

In NORTHERN IRELAND, abortion was permitted from 1945 if a mother’s life was at risk. In 2017–18 there were 44 legal abortions. In July 2019, while Northern Ireland’s devolved ASSEMBLY and EXECUTIVE were suspended, the UK Parliament decriminalized abortion in Northern Ireland and required regulations for abortion to be implemented by April 2020. See also CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922; WOMEN’S MOVEMENT FROM 1960S, IRELAND.

ABRAHAM, WILLIAMsee MABONABSOLUTISM

A form of government in which a ruler theoretically has unlimited power. European monarchies developed in this direction in the 16th–18th centuries. Certain features were considered characteristics of absolutism: a standing army, a compliant bureaucracy, the capacity to levy taxes without legislative approval, and the ability to pursue policies without consent from representative institutions.

In England such features were most apparent in the reigns of CHARLES I (1625–49) and JAMES VII/II (1685–8), and to a lesser extent in the reign of CHARLES II (1660–85). But these kings were restrained by a relatively strong legal and political culture. The increased strength of Parliament, resulting from the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION, ended absolutist developments. See also BALANCED CONSTITUTION; CHARLES I, PERSONAL RULE; STANDING ARMY, ENGLAND; KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND 1066 TO 1680S.

ACADEMIES OF ARTA Royal Academy of Arts was founded in England in 1768 to raise the status of art and artists. Located in London, its first patron was King GEORGE III. The first president was Joshua REYNOLDS. It has run a school and has held an annual summer exhibition since 1769. A Royal Hibernian Academy was founded in Ireland in 1823 (in Dublin), and a Scottish Academy in 1826 (in Edinburgh; granted royal charter 1838). See also VISUAL ARTS, BRITAIN/IRELAND.ACRE, FALL OFThe capture, on 18 May 1291, of the most important remaining Latin (or European) stronghold in Syria by Muslim forces under al‐Ashraf, sultan of Egypt. It led to the evacuation of the remaining Christian forts in the Middle East, effectively ending two centuries of European crusading involvement in the Holy Land. See also CRUSADES.ACT OF UNIONsee UNION OF WALES WITH ENGLANDACT RECISSORYAn Act passed by the Scottish Parliament on 28 March 1661 repealing most Acts since 1633. (Recissory means ‘revoking'.) It thus abolished all public legislation, religious and secular, introduced by the Covenanting regime (1638–50), thereby restoring royal authority and the institutional structure of the early 17th century. See also COVENANTING REVOLUTION; RESTORATION, SCOTLAND.ADAMS, GERRY

(b. 6 Oct. 1948 at Belfast, Northern Ireland). Reputedly a leading member of the PROVISIONAL IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (PIRA) in NORTHERN IRELAND in the early 1970s, Adams was interned (imprisoned without trial) in 1972, 1973–6, and imprisoned in 1978. He helped to organize the 1981 HUNGER STRIKES which encouraged PROVISIONAL SINN FÉIN (PSF) to exploit electoral politics alongside violent activity. In 1982 Adams was elected for PSF to the new ASSEMBLY (abstained). From 1983 to 2018 he was president of PSF.

From 1988 Adams engaged with John HUME in secret discussions about achieving Irish nationalist ambitions (principally a united Ireland). Their joint statement (24 April 1993) and report to the Irish taoiseach (premier) encouraged a PEACE PROCESS. From Sept. 1997, following a second PIRA ceasefire, Adams participated in the multi‐party talks that culminated in the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998). He was a member of another Assembly (1998–2010), and PSF participated in multi‐party EXECUTIVES (1999–2002, 2007–17). Adams was also an abstentionist member of the UK Parliament 1983–92, 1997–2011. From 2011 to 2020 he sat in the Dáil of the Republic of Ireland. See also TROUBLES; MC GUINNESS, MARTIN.

ADDINGTON, HENRY

(b. 30 May 1757 at London, England; d. 15 Feb. 1844 at Richmond, Surrey, England, aged 86). A doctor’s son and childhood friend of William PITT the Younger, Addington became an MP in 1784 and served as speaker of the House of Commons from 1789. An opponent of CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, he was chosen by King GEORGE III to replace Pitt as PRIME MINISTER (first lord of the Treasury) in March 1801, during the NAPOLEONIC WARS. Addington’s ministry negotiated the Peace of AMIENS with France (March 1802) but proved inadequate when war resumed (May 1803). The ministry collapsed in April 1804. Pitt resumed office.

Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth in 1805. He held posts in the ministries of Pitt (1805) and Lord GRENVILLE (1806–7), and was home secretary 1812–21 (under Lord LIVERPOOL), a period of social unrest. Sidmouth took harsh action against LUDDITES and introduced the repressive SIX ACTS (1819).

ADDLED PARLIAMENTIn England, the PARLIAMENT convened in 1614 by King JAMES VI/I who sought taxes to pay off debts. It met on 5 April and was dissolved on 7 June. As in the 1610 Parliament, opposition to IMPOSITIONS prevented agreement. It was nicknamed ‘Addled’ because, like an addled egg that produces no chicken, it failed to pass any Bills.ADEN AND ADEN PROTECTORATE

Former British territories in S Arabia. In 1839 the EAST INDIA COMPANY annexed the town of Aden, near the Red Sea; islands and other lands were later included. A coaling station for ships, Aden became especially important after the opening of the SUEZ CANAL (1869).

After 1839, informal agreements were made with rulers in Aden’s eastern hinterland, and from 1886 to 1954 Great Britain made formal treaties, creating the so‐called Aden Protectorate. Administration of the territories was transferred from India to London in 1917. Aden itself became a CROWN COLONY in 1937.

In 1959 some rulers in the protectorate formed the ‘Federation of Arab Emirates of the South’ (renamed Federation of South Arabia in 1962). Aden, under British sovereignty, joined the Federation in 1963; protected territories outside the Federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia. But from 1965 civil war spread into the FSA from North Yemen, and 129 British troops were killed (1965–7). Britain withdrew in Nov. 1967, whereupon the FSA and protectorate became the People’s Republic of South Yemen. See also BRITISH SOMALILAND.

ADOMNÁN(b. 627 or 628 in N Ireland; d. 23 Sept. 704 on Iona, Scottish Dál Riata, aged 76). In 679 Adomnán became ninth abbot of IONA (off Mull, W of Scotland, in the kingdom of DÁL RIATA), chosen probably for both learning and kinship with its founder Colum Cille (or COLUMBA). After his friend Aldfrith became king of NORTHUMBRIA, Adomnán rescued Irish captives from Northumbria (687). According to BEDE, Adomnán accepted the Roman timing of Easter from Northumbria and persuaded many Irish churches to adopt it, but not his own Ionan monasteries. In 697 Adomnán supported the adoption in Ireland of the ‘Law of Innocents’, which protected women, children and clergy in warfare. Adomnán wrote a Life of Columba and was venerated as a saint. See also EASTER CONTROVERSY.ADRIAN IV(b. c.1100 at Abbot's Langley, Hertfordshire, England; d. 1 Sept. 1159 at Anagni, Italy, aged about 59). Nicholas Breakspear, an abbot in France, was created a cardinal in 1149. After serving as papal legate in Scandinavia (1152–4), he was elected Pope (Dec. 1154) – the only Englishman to hold the office. He allegedly issued the bull LAUDABILITER , sanctioning involvement in Ireland by HENRY II.ADULLAMITESNickname of a WHIG faction in the UK Parliament which resisted any significant widening of the electorate, 1866–7, viewing it as a transfer of power to the ignorant. John BRIGHT likened their leader, Robert LOWE, to King David calling the discontented into the cave of Adullam (a reference to the Bible, 1 Samuel 22: 1–2). The Adullamites’ opposition to PARLIAMENTARY REFORM caused the fall of Lord John RUSSELL’s Liberal government in 1866.ADVENTURERS, ACT FORAct of the English Parliament, passed 19 March 1642, to pay for suppression of Irish rebels (see IRISH WARS, 1641–52). It offered financial investors (‘Adventurers') land which would be confiscated from rebels (total 2.5 million acres; 1 million ha). One‐third of the target £1 million was raised. Land was allocated from 1654 (see CROMWELLIAN LAND SETTLEMENT).ADVERTISING

Information was spread in TOWNS, possibly by the 12th century, by criers (or bellmen), and shops advertised their presence with signs (e.g., striped pole for a barber). Shop fascias, with lettering, spread from the late 18th century.

Printing extended possibilities. From the mid 17th century NEWSPAPERS carried advertisements, and handbills were produced (e.g., advertising coffee). By the 18th century the term ‘advertisement’ (meaning ‘notification’) was restricted to business announcements. The first ‘advertising agent’, William Taylor, is recorded in 1786 in Maidstone (SE England), and an agency, Reynell & Son, was founded in LONDON in 1812.

In the 19th century the development of mass‐produced branded goods for large markets, resulting partly from the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, required efficient, large‐scale advertising. Manufacturers of patent medicines notably invested heavily (e.g., on posters, newspaper advertisements). From the later 19th century advertisements were painted on buildings, and hoardings (billboards) were used. Agencies became more numerous, producing copy and artwork, and (from 1920s) organizing ‘campaigns’.

Film advertising began in 1897 (with an advert for custard powder), but TELEVISION and RADIO advertising were resisted in the UK until 1955 and 1973 respectively, although commercial radio stations broadcast advertisements from Continental Europe from the 1920s. In the Republic of Ireland, advertising began on radio in 1989, on television in 1998. The Internet became an important medium from the 1990s.

Industry self‐regulation schemes for handling complaints were introduced in the UK in 1962 and in the Republic of Ireland in 1981. Several British agencies were successful internationally from the later 20th century, notably WPP, developed by Sir Martin Sorrell, which in 2000 became the world’s largest advertising company.

ADVOWSON

The right to present a clergyman to a Church benefice (living). It arose from the foundation of local churches by lords (and creation of the PARISH SYSTEM) – in England in the 10th–12th centuries, later elsewhere. Advowsons were often associated with MANORS. As MONASTICISM expanded from the late 11th century, many advowsons were granted to religious houses. They often returned to lay ownership in the 16th century through the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES.

The preference for presbyterianism in the Church of SCOTLAND made private patronage contentious: it was abolished in 1649, restored in 1661, transferred to heritors and elders in 1690, restored in 1712, and abolished in 1874. It was also abolished in the Church of IRELAND from 1871, and in the Church in WALES from 1920.

As a property right, advowsons have been dealt with by royal rather than Church courts. Sale of advowsons in the Church of England was prohibited from 1924.

ÆLFGIFU

(fl. from c.1006; d. after 1037, probably in England). The daughter of an EALDORMAN, Ælfgifu ‘of Northampton' married CNUT (of Denmark) in England probably c.1013–14. She bore two sons, Swein and Harold. After Cnut became king of England (1016), he married again (1017) without repudiating Ælfgifu (see EMMA).

From 1030 Ælfgifu and Swein lived in Norway (conquered by Cnut in 1028), where Ælfgifu was regent for Swein. They were driven out in 1034. Ælfgifu returned to England and probably helped Harold to become king (see HAROLD ‘HAREFOOT’).

ÆLFRIC(b. c.950 in England; d. c.1010 at Eynsham, Oxfordshire, England, aged about 60). Educated at WINCHESTER under ÆTHELWOLD, the monk Ælfric absorbed the ideals of the TENTH‐CENTURY REFORMATION. Based at Cerne Abbas monastery (Dorset, from c.987) and then Eynsham (first abbot, from 1005), he was a prolific author and stylish writer of Old English. His works included homilies, saints' lives, translations of scripture, and grammatical works. See also EDUCATION AND LEARNING, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.ÆLFTHRYTH

(fl. from c.956; d. c.1000 in England). Ælfthryth married EDGAR, king of England, in 964 as second or third wife. She was crowned alongside him in 973. When Edgar died (975), his and Ælfthryth's surviving son, ÆTHELRED, was denied the kingship in favour of his older half‐brother Edward.

In 978 Ælfthryth's retainers murdered Edward, resulting in Æthelred's succession as king. Ælfthryth's culpability is suspected but unproved. She was an important figure at Æthelred's court. See also EDWARD THE MARTYR.

ÆTHELBALD(fl. from c.709; d. 757, at Seckington, Mercia). A member of the royal kindred of MERCIA (C England), Æthelbald lived in exile during the reign of his rival King Ceolred (709–16). Soon after Ceolred's death Æthelbald became king. He expanded Mercian‐controlled territory, taking LONDON and the Middle Saxon province from ESSEX, and absorbing the MAGONSÆTE (by 740). After the abdication of INE of WESSEX (726), Æthelbald became overking in southern England (by 731), even exercising some authority in Wessex. But he was defeated by King Cuthred of Wessex (752), and later murdered by his bodyguard. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.ÆTHELBERT(fl. from late 6th century; d. 24 Feb. 616, probably in Kent). Son of Eormenric, king of KENT (SE England), Æthelbert married Bertha, a Christian princess from Francia by 581. He succeeded as king c.590. Æthelbert's marriage enabled AUGUSTINE to undertake his Christian mission to the Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms (597). Æthelbert allowed Christian worship, supported church‐building, and issued the first English law code. He was the first Anglo‐Saxon king to espouse Christianity, and facilitated its spread (to ESSEX, EAST ANGLIA). BEDE claimed that Æthelbert was the third overking of the southern Anglo‐Saxons. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; LAW, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.ÆTHELFLÆD

(b. in 870s in Wessex; d. 12 June 918 at Tamworth, Mercia). The first‐born child of King ALFRED of WESSEX (S England), Æthelflæd married (by 887) Æthelred, ruler (‘EALDORMAN') of western Mercia (W Midlands). After his death (911) she was accepted as his successor and called ‘Lady of the Mercians'.

Æthelflæd constructed BURHS (fortified centres) in western Mercia and collaborated with her brother EDWARD THE ELDER of Wessex in conquering Danish‐held eastern Mercia. She received the submission of Danes at Derby (917) and Leicester (918). See also ENGLAND, FORMATION OF.

ÆTHELING

In Anglo‐Saxon England, term applied to candidates for kingship; OE æthel means ‘noble', ‐ing means ‘originating from' or ‘son of'.

In the 6th–9th centuries an ætheling had to claim descent through a male line from the accepted founder of a royal kindred (in 5th or 6th century). In the 9th–11th centuries ‘ætheling' designated a narrower group of sons or grandsons of a king. The position existed because there was no automatic succession to kingship. (Succession was influenced by kindred members, queens, other nobles and churchmen.)

The last ætheling was Edgar ætheling (c.1052–1125 or later), grandson of EDMUND IRONSIDE. In 1066, after the deaths of EDWARD THE CONFESSOR and HAROLD II, Edgar was widely considered the legitimate claimant to the English kingship. He submitted to WILLIAM I in Dec. 1066; rebelled 1068–72; resubmitted 1074. His sister MARGARET married MALCOLM III of Scotland. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.

ÆTHELRED II, ‘THE UNREADY'

(b. c.967; d. 23 April 1016 at London, England, aged about 49). Æthelred became king of England after the murder of his older half‐brother EDWARD THE MARTYR (18 March 978). From 980 England was raided by VIKINGS (mainly Danes). In 991 a large army was paid to move elsewhere (see MALDON, BATTLE OF), and Æthelred made a similar payment in 994. Raids nonetheless continued (997–1000, 1001–2, 1003, 1006–7, 1009–12). Æthelred also countered the Viking threat with a marriage alliance with Normandy (see EMMA).

In 1012 Thorkell, a Danish leader, became Æthelred's (paid) supporter. Denmark's king, SWEIN FORKBEARD, probably fearing attack, made a pre‐emptive invasion (summer 1013). Æthelred fled to Normandy (Dec. 1013). Swein's death (Feb. 1014) enabled him to return, but Swein's son CNUT invaded (1015) and quickly conquered much of England. Æthelred died in early 1016, leaving his son EDMUND IRONSIDE to continue resistance.

Æthelred (meaning ‘noble counsel') was nicknamed Unræd (OE, meaning ‘no‐counsel' or ‘ill‐advised’) from the 12th century. This was later corrupted to ‘Unready'. See also GELD.

ÆTHELWOLD(b. between 904 and 909 at Winchester, Hampshire, Wessex; d. 1 Aug. 984 at Beddington, Surrey, England, aged around 78). A monk at Glastonbury under DUNSTAN, c.954 Æthelwold was given the MINSTER at Abingdon (modern Oxfordshire) where he created a Benedictine monastery. As bishop of WINCHESTER (from 963) he extended monastic reform, replacing clergy at the Old and New Minsters with Abingdon monks and refounding religious houses elsewhere (e.g., Peterborough, Ely). He consolidated reform by compiling the Regularis concordia (‘Monastic agreement', early 970s), a rule for English religious houses based on St Benedict's rule. Æthelwold also promoted liturgical change, and was an important adviser to the young King ÆTHELRED II. See also TENTH-CENTURY REFORMATION.ÆTHELWULF

(fl. from 825; d. 858). Æthelwulf succeeded his father EGBERT as king of WESSEX (S England) in 839 after ruling subordinate territories (SE England) as subking. (His son Athelstan succeeded as subking.) From the 840s Wessex suffered frequent VIKING (Danish) raids. Æthelwulf won a famous victory in 851, reported even in Francia.

In 855–6 Æthelwulf made a pilgrimage to Rome. During his absence, his son Æthelbald rebelled (856). On return, Æthelwulf had to cede much of Wessex to Æthelbald. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; ALFRED.

AFFINITYsee BASTARD FEUDALISMAFGHANISTAN, BRITISH RELATIONS WITHThe aim of British policy in the 19th century was to exclude Russian influence from Afghanistan as a buffer state to protect India (see GREAT GAME). The First Afghan War (1838–42) involved a British attempt to restore a pro‐British ruler. The Second (1878–80) forcibly installed a British envoy at Kabul who was promptly murdered. Lord ROBERTS then briefly occupied Kabul and relieved a garrison near Kandahar (1879–80). After another conflict, Britain recognized the independence of Afghanistan by the treaty of Rawalpindi (Aug. 1919). Britain again undertook military operations in Afghanistan in the early 21st century as part of the US‐led ‘War on Terror’ (see AFGHANISTAN WAR (2001–14), BRITISH INVOLVEMENT). See also RUSSIA AND USSR, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; ANGLO‐RUSSIAN CONVENTION.AFGHANISTAN WAR (2001–14), BRITISH INVOLVEMENT

After hijackers associated with the radical Islamic group al‐Quaeda crashed three passenger aircraft into prominent buildings in the USA on 11 Sept. 2001 (called ‘9/11’ in USA), the USA intervened in Afghanistan, hunting al‐Quaeda’s leader Osama bin Laden. Afghanistan was dominated by the Taliban, a fundamentalist Islamic movement. Working with anti‐Taliban forces, the USA drove the Taliban from government (Oct.–Dec.), though bin Laden remained at large (killed in Pakistan in 2011). US and international forces stayed in Afghanistan to eliminate terrorist bases and promote democratic society, but were challenged by resurgent Taliban until 2009, when a ‘surge’ (deployment expansion) again repulsed them. Combat operations formally ceased in Dec. 2014.

British forces participated from the start with missile attacks (7 Oct. 2001). Troops were deployed from Nov., and joined ‘ISAF’ (International Security Assistance Force), a force authorized by the United Nations (Dec.) to train Afghan forces (police, army) and fight insurgents. From summer 2006 Helmand Province in S Afghanistan (population 880,000) was the main area of British activity, starting with 6000 troops who were tasked to suppress Helmand’s opium industry (responsible for 80% of world production). Some economic and social development work occurred, but forces were mostly involved in military operations. By 2009 Britain’s Helmand deployment exceeded 9000 troops. Extra US forces were then introduced (2010), and a British withdrawal began (2011). It ended in Oct. 2014, leaving a small training force. British forces suffered 456 deaths. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; BLAIR, TONY.

AFRICAN CARIBBEANS IN GREAT BRITAIN

A few immigrants from English (later British) colonies in the WEST INDIES settled from the 17th century. During the 19th century small communities became established in ports (e.g., LONDON, CARDIFF, LIVERPOOL).

Large‐scale immigration, predominantly from JAMAICA, began in 1948, symbolized by arrival of the ship Empire Windrush carrying 492 Jamaicans. By the early 1960s, there were about 300,000 African Caribbean immigrants, who sought a better life. Settled mainly in cities, they remained the largest minority group until the late 1970s. Though westernized, English‐speaking and often Christian, they encountered discrimination in public housing and employment (e.g., exclusion from employment on buses in BRISTOL, provoking the ‘Bristol bus boycott’ in 1963). Disturbances occurred in African Caribbean areas (late 1950s–mid 1980s; e.g., NOTTING HILL RIOTS, 1958, BRIXTON AND TOXTETH RIOTS, 1981).

Numerous African Caribbeans became prominent in sport and music, and ‘countercultures’ flourished. A majority of African Caribbean families have been single‐parent households, usually headed by a mother. By the early 21st century, African Caribbeans were the fifth‐largest minority (about 600,000 in 2011, mostly in England and Wales). High levels of intermarriage or cohabitation took place mainly with the white population. See also ETHNIC AND NATIONAL MINORITIES, ENGLAND/WALES.

AFRICANS IN GREAT BRITAIN

A few black Africans lived in England from the mid 16th century, often originating from the SLAVE TRADE and working as personal servants. By the 18th century, there were possibly 15,000 in LONDON. (Slavery was not recognized in England and Wales, as Somerset’s case confirmed in 1772.)

In the 1960s–70s, thousands of black Africans from former British colonies in WEST AFRICA settled, many coming initially as university students. Continuing immigration from sub‐Saharan countries expanded rapidly from the later 1990s, from former British territories (e.g., Zimbabwe) and elsewhere (e.g., Congo). In 2011 there were 1,016,000 black Africans in Britain, of whom two‐thirds lived in London and most of the remainder in other cities and towns in England and Wales. About 25% of men and 18% of women married or cohabited outside their own group (2010).

From the late 1980s African immigrants included refugees from civil war in Somalia – some from former BRITISH SOMALILAND, most from former Italian Somaliland. As Muslims from rural backgrounds, with a clan‐based social structure and often illiterate, Somalis tended to form exclusive communities. With only 30% of adults employed, they depended extensively on State benefits. About 60% of households were headed by a single parent. The few Somalis who prospered included the champion runner Sir ‘Mo’ Farah (b. 1983 in Somalia). In 2011, there were about 103,000 Somalis (two‐thirds resident in London). See also ETHNIC AND NATIONAL MINORITIES, ENGLAND/SCOTLAND/WALES.

AGADIR CRISISA dispute provoked by France’s military occupation of Fez, the capital of Morocco (NW Africa), in May 1911 (to suppress riots), effectively establishing a PROTECTORATE. France’s action threatened a Franco‐German agreement concerning interests in Morocco (1909). Germany responded by stationing a gunboat off the Moroccan port of Agadir (1 July). Great Britain’s chancellor of the Exchequer, David LLOYD GEORGE, publicly supported France (21 July), to Germany’s consternation. Britain’s stance reinforced the ANGLO‐FRENCH CONVENTION (1904) and raised tension with GERMANY. The matter was settled by negotiations. See also GREY, EDWARD; GUNBOAT DIPLOMACY.AGINCOURT, BATTLE OFsee HUNDRED YEARS WAR AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLEA proposed radical constitution for England and Wales which was drawn up by LEVELLERS in the NEW MODEL ARMY and presented to the Army’s Council on 28 Oct. 1647, following the First CIVIL WAR (see PUTNEY DEBATES). Parliament would have full powers and be elected by an extensive franchise. There would also be religious toleration. Two further versions were published and, while uninfluential at the time, they affected later radical thinking. See also CIVIL WARS, POLITICAL ASPECTS.AGRICOLA(b. 13 June 40 at Forum Julii/Fréjus, SE Gaul; d. 93 at Rome, Italy, aged about 53). A distinguished Roman senator, Gnaeus Julius Agricola owes his fame to a biography by his son‐in‐law TACITUS. After an early career which included two postings in Britain (c. 61, 70–3 or 74), Agricola was consul in 77. As governor of Roman Britain (77–83) he completed the conquest of W Britain (Wales) and advanced into N Britain (Scotland), defeating the CALEDONIANS at MONS GRAUPIUS (83). See also ROMAN BRITAIN.AGRICULTURAL CO‐OPERATIVES, IRELANDSocieties formed from 1889 mainly by farmers to improve efficiency. Following Continental European models, co‐operatives operated creameries for butter production, bought seeds and fertilizers in bulk, marketed produce, and provided credit. The movement was promoted by the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society, founded 1894 (see PLUNKETT, HORACE). By 1914 there were about 1000 societies. In the later 20th century, many became large businesses through mergers. See also AGRICULTURE, IRELAND 17TH CENTURY TO 1921.AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION, LATE 19TH CENTURYFrom the late 1870s, AGRICULTURE in Great Britain and Ireland suffered from a substantial decline in food prices and profitability caused by the influx of cheaper foreign foodstuffs. Wheat producers (e.g., in S England, SE Scotland) were worst hit, undercut by US and Russian wheat. Livestock producers were affected by American chilled beef (from 1875) and by Australian and New Zealand frozen meat (from 1880). Many left farming; landlords lost rental income. The depression encouraged dairying and diversification, and in Ireland contributed to LAND AGITATION. Conditions improved slowly from c.1900. See also FOREIGN TRADE, GREAT BRITAIN FROM LATER 18TH CENTURY.AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

Historians’ term for substantial increases in agricultural output and productivity involving innovation and social change. It was adopted in the 1880s by the English historians Arnold Toynbee and R.E. Prothero (later Lord Ernle) for developments in England, approximately 1760–1840.

The Revolution was considered complementary to the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, and derived similarly from the work of ‘great men’, such as Jethro Tull, inventor of the seed drill (1701); Viscount TOWNSHEND (‘Turnip Townshend’), who promoted the ‘Norfolk rotation’ of crops (1730s); and the animal breeder Robert Bakewell (active by 1760s). Landowners’ replacement of open‐field farming with large, tenant‐held capitalist farms was also deemed important (see ENCLOSURE).

The original conception was challenged. Earlier revolutions were proposed: 1560–1650, which saw innovations such as ‘convertible husbandry’ (alternating land use between cultivation and pasture) and irrigated meadows; or 1650–1760, when new crop rotations were spreading and CAPITALISM was influential. Though output growth is difficult to quantify, the original proposal has remained persuasive because farming became based on large units of production (farms) employing a workforce of labourers, and agriculture supported an expanding industrial sector. Developments are sometimes seen as culminating in a ‘Second Agricultural Revolution’ of so‐called HIGH FARMING (from 1840s). The Revolution also affected parts of Scotland and Wales but had little impact in Ireland. From 1945 far greater increases in productivity were obtained by mechanization, intensive use of chemicals, new strains of plants and improved animal breeds.

AGRICULTURE, ENGLAND BEFORE MID 18TH CENTURY

In the 5th–6th centuries, GERMANIC IMMIGRATON made no observable differences to agricultural practices. Livestock rearing, especially of cattle, was important. Sufficient cereals were grown for domestic needs and élites. Changes in the 8th–9th centuries included increasing arable cultivation, larger fields, and more sheep‐ and pig‐keeping. Possibly in the 9th–10th centuries, extensive open fields emerged, associated with villages, mainly in a ‘central region’ (NE England across Midlands to S coast), though chronology and causation are obscure. Elsewhere, small fields remained normal.

By the 12th century, open‐field agricultural systems were well developed, regulated by lords’ manorial courts (see MANOR). They typically comprised two or three fields divided into ‘selions’ (strips of land). ‘Mixed farming’ was practised, whereby crops were grown (variously barley, wheat, oats, rye, peas, beans) and sheep kept for manure (as well as wool). One field was annually left fallow for manuring. Upland areas were dominated by livestock. In the 12th–13th centuries, agriculture was stimulated by commercialization and POPULATION increase. Population decline from the mid 14th century, and increased labour costs, eventually caused contraction of arable farming and (in 15th century) widespread sheep grazing on permanent pasture (see ENCLOSURE). Many tenants acquired larger holdings (origin of ‘yeoman farmers’).

Re‐expanding population from the 16th century increased demand for grain. Arable farming was extended, and yields were increased by more intensive manuring and ‘convertible husbandry’ (alternating periods of cultivation and pasture). Irrigation of meadows in southern England (from early 17th century) increased hay production for livestock. When population stagnated in the later 17th century, grain prices and profitability fell (despite the CORN LAWS), enabling landlords to buy farmers’ lands or introduce shorter leases. Livestock rearing increased, facilitated by new crop rotations involving nitrogen‐fixing grasses (e.g., clover) and turnips. Agricultural production probably doubled in the 16th–18th centuries, enabling the population to be fed without significant imports. See also FENS; ENCLOSURE AND ENGROSSING, ENGLAND 1480S–1630S; TENURES, ENGLAND FROM 1066; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, ENGLAND.

AGRICULTURE, ENGLAND FROM MID 18TH CENTURY

The gradual spread of new crop rotations (cereals, clover, turnips), sowing by seed drill (from 1770s) and selective stock‐breeding increased output. Open‐field systems disappeared from the mid 18th century as land was enclosed under parliamentary legislation (at peak, 1790–1815; see ENCLOSURE). Loss of grazing worsened conditions of the poor.

In the 19th century, industrialization meant that agriculture ceased to be the basis of the economy: in 1800 it employed a third of the workforce, by 1900 only a tenth (see INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION). Industrial interests seemingly triumphed over the ‘landed interest’ with repeal of the CORN LAWS (1846), which ended protection for arable farming, though HIGH FARMING helped to sustain profitability. RAILWAYS stimulated dairying by enabling rapid transport of milk. There was a long‐term trend towards larger units of cultivation, although farms of over 500 acres (200 ha) remained rare outside East Anglia.

Large‐scale imports of chilled meat from 1875, grain from the late 1870s, and frozen meat from 1880 reduced prices and profits, and encouraged change from arable to livestock, and rural depopulation (see AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION, LATE 19TH CENTURY). From 1908, the National Farmers’ Union operated as a pressure group. WORLD WAR I (1914–18) stimulated grain production, and provided an opportunity (1919–21) for large‐scale land sales by landlords to tenants (36% of land was owner‐occupied by 1927). Renewed price falls left agriculture depressed in the 1920s–30s, eventually provoking government intervention (see AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, GREAT BRITAIN).

By the 1930s, 70% of food was imported, but agricultural output nearly doubled during WORLD WAR II (1939–45), with little extra labour, due to more mechanization (tractors, milking machines, combine harvesters). From the mid 20th century, intensive methods became prevalent (e.g., spraying crops with chemical pesticides). From 1973, agriculture was subject to the COMMON AGRICUTURAL POLICY of the European Union. See also AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION; TENURES, ENGLAND FROM 1066; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, ENGLAND.

AGRICULTURE, IRELAND BEFORE 17TH CENTURY

Until the late 12th century, agriculture was mostly pastoral, predominantly cow keeping (sheep were less important). Cattle were measures of value for social status and wealth, and conflicts between kingdoms often consisted of cattle raids. Cow keeping involved transhumance (or booleying, i.e., seasonal movement to upland pastures). Cereals were also cultivated (mostly oats), and bees were widely kept for honey. Flax was widely grown for domestic linen production.

Following the Anglo‐Norman invasion (1169–70), agriculture in English‐inhabited areas was organized within MANORS, as elsewhere in Europe (see NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND). Cultivated land expanded greatly, especially in E and S Ireland, with wheat and oats as the main crops. Sheep were kept to provide manure (so‐called ‘sheep–corn husbandry’). Individual holdings consisted of small strips of land distributed among a few large, open fields. Agricultural regimes were subject to communal organization. Lords’ unfree tenants were predominantly Gaelic Irish (so‐called betaghs), who undertook LABOUR SERVICES, though they were less onerous than in lowland England to attract settlers. Much labour was hired.

The reduced POPULATION of the late 14th and 15th centuries resulted in a contraction of arable cultivation and expansion of sheep‐farming in English areas. The shrinkage of English‐occupied areas led to an expansion of Gaelic pastoralism, though around English areas (in E and SE Ireland) English and Gaelic practices were intermixed. In the 16th century, English PLANTATIONS attempted to expand arable cultivation in Gaelic areas. See also TENURES, IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.

AGRICULTURE, IRELAND 17TH CENTURY TO 1921

Pastoral farming (cattle, sheep) continued to predominate in W and N Ireland, while arable farming or ‘tillage’ remained prominent in E and parts of S Ireland. Demand from England for live cattle and wool stimulated pastoral farming, though warfare in the 1640s–50s depressed activity (see IRISH WARS, 1641–52). In the mid 1660s, half of Ireland’s exports by value were cattle or cattle‐based products (hides, beef, tallow, butter).

From the mid 18th century, landowners raised arable productivity and rents by enclosing open fields and converting pasture. The government from 1758 provided bounties (incentive payments) on exports of corn and flour to expand tillage and employment (reinforced 1784 by FOSTER’S CORN LAW). Grain exports increased until the 1840s, turning Ireland into Great Britain’s ‘bread basket’. (Grain exports rose c.1815–45 from 125,000 to 513,000 tons per year.) Exports of cattle and pigs also grew. But population also rose substantially (4.4–8.5 million, 1781–1845). Most holdings were very small (69% under 15 acres in 1845), and held on lease. Labourers cultivated potatoes for subsistence in gardens or tiny plots.

The GREAT FAMINE (1845–9) eliminated overcrowding and tiny landholdings, and accelerated a reversion to pastoral farming (e.g., cattle increased 1850–79 from 1.4 to 3.8 million). Incomes and conditions improved, though depressions impeded progress (1859–64, 1879–90). Related unrest, exploited by politicians, resulted in legislation that extended landownership by small farmers (see LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND). Other means employed to improve agriculture included AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIVES (from 1889) and the CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD (1891). When Ireland was partitioned in 1921, it remained a largely agricultural country. See also TENURES, IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.

AGRICULTURE, NORTHERN IRELAND

In 1926, following the PARTITION OF IRELAND (1921), 26% of the total workforce was occupied in agriculture (147,000 people). Most landholdings were small (70% under 30 acres or 12 ha). Livestock (especially cattle) and livestock products dominated (80% of output by value). Arable farming occupied 23% of agricultural land. Agriculture was regulated by the province’s PARLIAMENT and affected by British government policies.

During the 1920s, under FREE TRADE, prices fell. Protection from 1932 improved conditions (see TARIFF REFORM; OTTAWA AGREEMENTS). Arable production declined during the 1920s–30s. In the 1930s, pig numbers increased threefold, encouraged by cheap foodstuffs and a marketing board (1933). Sheep and poultry numbers also rose. Agriculture benefited from the Anglo‐Irish ECONOMIC WAR (1932–8) and UK Wheat Act (1932). A subsidy for ‘fat cattle’ (1934) encouraged ‘finishing’ instead of raising cattle, using ‘store cattle’ from southern Ireland.

During WORLD WAR II (1939–45) cow herds and arable expanded, while sheep numbers fell. Afterwards, previous trends were resumed, with the British government providing new financial support from 1947. Beef production and pig numbers expanded (latter peaking in 1965). In 1960, pig and poultry production were half of output by value, declining to 21% by 1985. The number of labourers declined drastically as tasks (e.g., milking) were mechanized. Dairy production expanded from the 1960s. By 1985, arable, now more productive, occupied only 9% of land. Holdings remained small (average of 48 acres, 19 ha, in 1980), with many worked part‐time or leased out.

From 1973, conditions were determined by the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community. In 2015, livestock accounted for 80% of output by value. Agriculture engaged 3.2% of the workforce. See also AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, GREAT BRITAIN/NORTHERN IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.

AGRICULTURE, SCOTLAND BEFORE 18TH CENTURY

From the 13th century onwards, arable farming was organized on an infield–outfield system, a variant of open‐field agriculture (see AGRICULTURE, ENGLAND BEFORE MID 18TH CENTURY). The distinction between infield and outfield developed from earlier, simpler ‘infield‐only' systems. Open‐field farming may have been introduced with FEUDALISM (from the 12th century), replacing earlier systems based on small enclosed fields.

The infield, on the best soils, was relatively small (at most, a third of total area), but received most manure and was intensively cropped with bere (a form of barley), oats and sometimes wheat, rye and legumes. The more extensive outfields, producing only oats, received little manure and were regularly rested as fallow to restore fertility. Crop yields were low; a return of three times the seed sown was considered acceptable, though infields sometimes produced more. Arable land was frequently held in shares, with holdings fragmented into intermixed parcels under the RUNRIG system. An eight‐oxen team, ploughing land as ridge and furrow, was normal. In the W Highlands, population growth from the late 16th century encouraged a shift from plough to intensive spade cultivation in ‘lazy beds' (heavily manured hill‐side strips).

All communities produced some grain for subsistence, and most farms kept cattle and sheep. There was an emphasis on arable in the eastern Lowlands, while the eastern Borders specialized in sheep farming from the 12th century. Galloway (SW Scotland) concentrated on cattle rearing. In the medieval Lowlands, and in the Highlands into the late 18th century, cattle were driven to summer pastures, or shielings, among hills and mountains. During the 17th century, arable farming expanded with population growth and, around the major towns, became more intensive with liming and improved rotations. Enclosure of land on estate policies (parks) and home farms began in the later 17th century. See also TENURES, SCOTLAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, SCOTLAND.

AGRICULTURE, SCOTLAND FROM 18TH CENTURY

Free trade with England, introduced by the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707), stimulated sheep and cattle farming in the Borders. Tenants were removed, particularly in the 1720s, to provide pastures (see LEVELLERS' REVOLT). In the eastern Lowlands multiple tenancies were gradually replaced by single tenancies.

Between the 1760s and 1820s, growing towns and industrial regions stimulated the transformation (or ‘improvement') of Lowland agriculture. Landowners terminated leases and enclosed open fields (both in‐ and outfields), creating compact large farms (often over 100 acres, 40 ha) with single tenants. Commonties (common lands) were made private and enclosed. Farmers adopted techniques for improving fertility (intensive liming; increased stocking of sheep and cattle, to provide dung, fed on sown grass and turnips). Crop yields doubled or tripled. Little mechanization occurred, though the light two‐horse plough became common. In the HIGHLANDS large sheep farms were created (1770s–1840s) by removal of tenants (see CLEARANCES; CROFTING). Better roads and CANALS improved access to markets.

Prosperity continued until the 1870s. From the 1820s, fat cattle were exported to London by steamship (from the 1850s by RAILWAYS). The NE became famous for beef. Arable yields were raised in mid century by HIGH FARMING techniques. Scotland suffered from the AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION of the 1880s–90s, though less than most of the UK.

In the 20th century, the World Wars (1914–18, 1939–45) created temporary demand as imports were cut, but prices fell afterwards. From the 1950s, arable farming became totally mechanized (tractors, harvesters), and from 1973, agriculture was subject to the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community. Having employed 150,000 people in 1881, by 2000 agriculture required only 25,000 workers. See also TENURES, SCOTLAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, SCOTLAND.

AGRICULTURE, SOUTHERN IRELAND

Agriculture predominated in the economy of the IRISH FREE STATE (founded 1922), accounting in 1926 for 53% of the total workforce (648,000 people) and 34% of national income. Livestock (especially cattle) and livestock products (e.g., butter) were the main concerns. In the 1920s, prices declined though exports (mainly to Great Britain) rose 12% in value 1925–30.

From 1932, the FIANNA FÁIL government of Éamon DE VALERA sought to increase self‐sufficiency by encouraging arable farming with price support (1932). But expansion was modest, and de Valera’s ECONOMIC WAR with Britain greatly reduced agricultural exports and incomes (e.g., cattle exports fell by two‐thirds in value 1931–4).

Increased overseas demand in WORLD WAR II (1939–45) and afterwards improved conditions, but in the 1950s–60s prices declined and farmers depended considerably on State aid. The difficult situation produced a ‘flight from the land’. By 1971, agriculture employed 25% of the workforce, less than now occupied in industry.

The Republic of Ireland’s entry into the European Economic Community (1973) brought agriculture under its COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY (CAP), which raised incomes. Cattle remained pre‐eminent, with beef cattle becoming more important. The CAP’s terms favoured capital‐intensive large farms, which increased production and productivity. Dairy farms fell from 86,000 in 1984 to 25,000 in 2005. By 2011, only 4.7% of the workforce remained in agriculture, though food processing was an important industry. See also AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, SOUTHERN IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.

AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, GREAT BRITAIN

From the 1660s to 1840s the English (later British) government encouraged stability of arable agriculture through the CORN LAWS. Following their abolition (1846), LAISSEZ-FAIRE prevailed.

The need for increased home food production during WORLD WAR I (1914–18) provoked intervention. From 1917, some permanent pasture was ploughed up, under local direction, to expand cereal production (mostly in 1918). The 1917 Corn Production Act (for UK) introduced minimum prices for wheat and oats, and minimum wages for labourers. They were continued by the 1920 Agriculture Act (for Great Britain), but it was repealed in 1921 because of farmers’ opposition and cost. Wage regulation was reinstituted (1924) in England and Wales (in Scotland, 1937). Minor support measures were introduced (e.g., sugar beet subsidy, 1925). De‐rating of land and agricultural buildings (in stages, 1923–9) reduced costs.

In the 1930s, in response to difficult economic conditions, the government sought to sustain agriculture and increase efficiency. The 1931 Agricultural Marketing Act authorized marketing boards in Britain, and the 1932 Wheat Act (for UK) guaranteed minimum prices for wheat. The 1937 Agriculture Act began war preparations, including subsidies to expand wheat acreage and for additional crops. The 1939 Agricultural Development Act subsidized ploughing of grassland for cereal production. Support was extended in 1944 (during WORLD WAR II), and the post‐war 1947 Agriculture Act guaranteed prices in the UK for most products (basis of support altered 1953). Arrangements continued until the UK joined the European Economic Community (1973; see COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY).

AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, NORTHERN IRELAND

The provincial government formed in 1921 included a Ministry of Agriculture. In the 1920s–30s, it sought to raise standards of produce partly to increase exports. Initiatives included the 1922 Livestock Breeding Act, which required the licensing of bulls, the 1924 Eggs Marketing Act, the 1925 Drainage Act, and the 1934–8 Milk Acts. Farming was assisted by de‐rating of agricultural land from 1923. During WORLD WAR II (1939–45), State incentives and requirements increased production, especially of crops (ploughed acreage almost doubled 1939–43). Land improvement was further encouraged by the Drainage Act of 1947.

Between 1947 and 1954, UK legislation guaranteed prices for main produce. In 1973, agriculture became subordinate to the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community.

AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, SOUTHERN IRELAND

In the 1920s, government initiatives attempted to increase output and exports (mostly pastoral products sold to Great Britain). Improvement of quality was emphasized. Creameries were reorganized, a sugar‐beet factory was built, and an Agricultural Credit Corporation was founded (1927). Import duties were imposed on a few products (butter, oats, oatmeal) for protection. State‐sponsored transfer of land ownership from landlords to tenants continued (Land Acts 1923, 1927).

The government of Éamon DE VALERA (premier 1932–48) sought agricultural self‐sufficiency by expanding grain production. It introduced price support for dairy products (1932) and grain crops (1933). But the ECONOMIC WAR provoked by de Valera in 1932 reduced exports and farmers’ incomes.

Renewed decline of farmers’ incomes from the 1950s was countered by government contracts for some agricultural products, and in the 1960s by subsidies and an Anglo‐Irish Free Trade Agreement (1965). From 1973, agriculture was subject to the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community.

AGRICULTURE, WALES BEFORE 18TH CENTURY

Agriculture was strongly influenced by varying physical geography – with much upland, mountainous regions and forest – and by variable land quality. Until the 17th century, crop yields were generally below those of England except in the fertile SE. In lowland regions (along the S coast and BORDER lands), mixed agriculture (arable and stock keeping) was the norm. In the uplands, pastoral farming predominated, with animals being moved annually to summer pastures (transhumance) until the late 18th century. Cattle were the main animals in the rural economy, and also a principal export to England.

Much arable farming was based on the open‐field system (see AGRICULTURE, ENGLAND BEFORE MID 18TH CENTURY), though in uplands the infield–outfield system was probably common (see AGRICULTURE, SCOTLAND BEFORE 18TH CENTURY). Because many uplands were of poor quality, more particularly of high acidity, the main crop was oats. Barley and wheat were more common on lowland parts of the MARCH OF WALES. Sheep farming on uplands was a relatively late introduction, and was developed particularly by Cistercian monasteries in S Wales in the 12th century. It expanded significantly in the 15th century, partly because of the decline of arable farming in the wake of the BLACK DEATH (1349). From the late 17th century, some wealthier farmers adopted new husbandry techniques. See also TENURES, WALES; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, WALES.

AGRICULTURE, WALES FROM 18TH CENTURY

Stock rearing remained the predominant activity, so innovations relating to animals were most important. From the late 18th century, new breeds were produced by cross‐breeding with English sheep and cattle; some were widely adopted. The Welsh Black cattle breed, created in the mid 19th century from two PEMBROKESHIRE varieties, was notably successful. In arable‐based lowlands, landowners used extended rotations (including turnips) on home farms and participated in mid 19th‐century HIGH FARMING. But tenant farmers were notably less enterprising. Investment in some areas was stimulated by demand from industrial TOWNS and availability of RAILWAYS. During the AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION (1880s–90s), about 40% of arable land was converted to pasture.

Demand during WORLD WAR I (1914–18) brought prosperity, while post‐war land sales increased owner‐occupied land from 10 to 39%. But price falls depressed agriculture; recovery began only in the late 1930s, with expansion of dairying, and became widespread during WORLD WAR II (1939–45).

After 1945, selective herbicides, improved fertilizers and machinery (tractors, harvesters) increased arable productivity. From 1973, agriculture was subject to the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community. By 1990, the number of farms had halved, though 72% of holdings remained smaller than 123 acres (50 ha). In the late 1990s, price falls again threatened both upland sheep farming and all aspects of cattle production. In the early 21st century, farming remained primarily pastoral, though in dairying only large herds of cows (several hundred head) were viable. Many farmers engaged in diverse activities (e.g., provision of accommodation) to provide sufficient income. See also TENURES, WALES; ENCLOSURES, WALES; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, WALES; AGRICULTURE, STATE INTERVENTION, GREAT BRITAIN.

AHERN, BERTIE

(b. 12 Sept. 1951 at Drumcondra, Co. Dublin, Republic of Ireland). A FIANNA FÁIL TD (1977–2011), Ahern served in the governments of Charles HAUGHEY and Albert REYNOLDS. Elected party leader after Reynolds (1994), he was unable to become taoiseach (premier) because Fianna Fáil’s coalition partner (Labour) changed alliance (see BRUTON, JOHN).

After the 1997 general election, Ahern became taoiseach of a coalition government, continuing with coalitions after the 2002 and 2007 elections. With Tony BLAIR, he reinvigorated the Northern Ireland PEACE PROCESS, resulting in the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998), modification of the Republic’s constitutional claim to Northern Ireland (1999), and devolved government in Northern Ireland (1999–2002). During Ahern’s premiership, the Republic entered the euro currency (1999) and accepted the European Union’s treaty of Nice (2002, by second referendum). In early 2002, the government accepted a payment from Catholic religious orders for indemnification against child abuse claims. A proposed tightening of the ABORTION prohibition was rejected by referendum (2002). Economic expansion continued.

Suspicions about personal finances raised by the Mahon Tribunal into political corruption caused Ahern to resign as taoiseach and party leader (effective May 2008). After the economic crash of Sept. 2008, he was widely blamed for Ireland’s plight. See also SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP; COWEN, BRIAN; CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922.

AIDAN(fl. from 635; d. 31 Aug. 651 near Bamburgh, Bernicia). In 635 Aidan, an Irish monk at IONA (off W Scotland), offered to serve as bishop and missionary in BERNICIA and DEIRA (NE England), to meet a request from King OSWALD. After being consecrated, he settled on Lindisfarne, where a monastery was founded, and from where he made preaching tours on foot. After Oswald's death (642), he continued work under OSWIU and Oswine (subking in Deira). See also CONVERSION OF ANGLO‐SAXONS; CHAD.AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY, UNITED KINGDOM

Short Brothers was the first company in the world to manufacture aircraft, from 1909 in London. A sizable industry developed primarily because of military demand. During WORLD WAR I (1914–18), employment reached 112,000, and 58,000 planes were produced (from 1918 mainly for the ROYAL AIR FORCE). Contraction followed, with employment reduced to 30,000 by 1930. About 15 companies made airframes, and five made engines, mainly for the RAF, although aircraft were also produced for commercial AIR TRANSPORT and private flying. Re‐expansion of military production began in 1934.

During WORLD WAR II (1939–45), employment reached 340,000 and 131,000 planes were manufactured. An outstanding innovation was the jet engine (in service from 1944; see WHITTLE, FRANK).

Aircraft development was extensively funded by the government from the mid 1940s to sustain a substantial industry. New military planes included the Canberra bomber (in RAF service 1951–2006), Hunter fighter (1951–1990s) and Lightning supersonic fighter (1959–88). Civil planes included the first jet‐powered airliner, the Comet (from 1952). Its grounding (1954–8), after crashes, allowed the US industry to overtake. The VC‐10 (produced 1962–70) was the last British long‐haul airliner.

From the late 1950s the government encouraged company mergers and international collaborations. The latter produced the Anglo‐French supersonic airliner Concorde (in service 1976–2003). From 1967, wings were contributed to European ‘Airbus’ aircraft.

In 1971, following collapse, engine manufacturer ROLLS‐ROYCE was nationalized, and in 1977 most other manufacturing was consolidated in the State‐owned British Aircraft Corporation (both privatized in 1980s). New military aircraft were collaborations, notably the Tornado (manufactured 1979–98) and Typhoon (from 1994).

The creation of the defence company BAE Systems in 1999 subsumed most aircraft production. Production of civil aircraft (small airliners) ended in 2013. In 2017, aircraft and related aerospace manufacturing employed 120,000 people. Rolls‐Royce remained a world leader in jet engines. See also INDUSTRY, NORTHERN IRELAND.

AIR FORCE, SOUTHERN IRELANDsee DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELANDAIR FORCE, UNITED KINGDOMsee ROYAL AIR FORCEAIRGIALLA (ORIEL OR URIEL)

A kingdom in central N Ireland (broadly between Loughs Erne and Neagh). It existed by the 5th century when it may have changed allegiance from the Ulaid (retreating eastwards) to the advancing Northern UÍ NÉILL (see ULSTER). Its name, meaning ‘Eastern hostages', was bestowed by the latter. Airgialla supposedly comprised nine dynasties, one holding a high‐kingship. During the 7th and 8th centuries lands were lost to the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill (modern Co. Tyrone).

By the 11th century the Ua Cerbaill dynasty was dominant (English, O'Carroll). Donnchad Ua Cerbaill (d. 1168) added lands to the SE (modern Co. Louth) by 1142. After his son Murchad's death (1189), Prince JOHN of England granted lands to the Anglo‐Normans Bertram de Verdon and Gilbert Pipard (1189 or 1190). Settlement by their retainers caused Ua Cerbaill authority to collapse.

From the early 13th century, the Mac Mathgamna (MacMahon) dynasty dominated the reduced kingdom (modern Co. Monaghan). In 1590, Hugh Roe MacMahon was executed for treason by the English and his lordship was divided (1591). See also NIALL NOÍGIALLACH; ARMAGH.

AIR TRANSPORT, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

Aeroplanes flew in Britain from 1908, and were soon used for military purposes (see ROYAL AIR FORCE). State regulation of civil aviation, and scheduled services (initially to Paris, France), began in 1919, the latter operated by British and overseas companies. The earliest international airports were near London at Hounslow Heath (1919–20) and Croydon (1920–39). From 1924, the main British airline was Imperial Airways (created by a merger), which pioneered routes across the BRITISH EMPIRE. In the 1930s several companies developed domestic routes (e.g., to MANCHESTER, BELFAST, GLASGOW); a merger created British Airways (1935), which served domestic and Continental European destinations. Imperial and BA merged in 1940, under State ownership, as the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Pan American Airways operated scheduled trans‐Atlantic flights in 1939. Commercial flying was restricted during WORLD WAR II (1939–45).

From 1946, Heathrow London (created for military use) was the primary civil airport (busiest in Europe by 1955). Gatwick was expanded from 1958 as London’s second airport. The designation of Stansted in 1969 as the third reflected the growth of flying as a mass activity (e.g., for holidays). London City Airport, near central London, opened in 1987 for smaller aircraft; Luton Airport was renamed ‘London Luton’ in 1990. Regional airports were also expanded. By the early 21st century there were 15 major airports.

In 1947, several companies were absorbed by State‐owned British European Airways (BEA, formed 1946), establishing a State ‘duopoly’ of British‐based passenger air transport. BOAC introduced jet airliners (Comet) in 1952. From 1960, competition was allowed from independent airlines (e.g., British United Airways). BOAC and BEA merged in 1974 as British Airways (privatized 1987). Further liberalization from the 1980s enabled ‘low‐cost’ airlines to flourish from 1995. In 2015, airports handled about 260 million passengers.

AIR TRANSPORT, SOUTHERN IRELAND After the first aeroplane flight in Ireland, in 1910 (by Harry Ferguson of BELFAST), recreational flying developed. Military airfields and seaplane bases were opened in 1917–18 (during WORLD WAR I), notably Baldonnel Aerodrome near Dublin which became southern Ireland’s main military airfield (renamed Casement Aerodrome in 1965).The IRISH FREE STATE founded a military Air Service in 1922 (see DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELAND), but eschewed civil aviation until 1935 when it agreed to provide facilities for trans‐Atlantic flights by the W coast. The Foynes flying boat terminal by the Shannon estuary serviced flights 1939–45, and was superseded by Shannon Airport, at which flights from the USA terminated under a 1945 agreement with the USA. Meanwhile, a State airline, Aer Lingus, was started (1936), operating from Baldonnel to Great Britain; Aer Rianta was created as a civil aviation and ownership authority (1937); and Dublin Airport was opened (1940).

Further expansion included flights to Continental Europe (from late 1940s), Aer Lingus services to the USA (1958), and the opening of CORK Airport (1961). Smaller regional airports were created in the later 20th century, including Knock International (Co. Mayo) for visitors to Knock Shrine (1985). The requirement for flights from the USA to use Shannon Airport was modified in 1994 and ended in 2008. New Irish airlines included Ryanair (1985), a ‘low‐cost carrier’ which became one of Ireland’s largest companies, by 2015 operating over 350 aircraft. In 2015, the Republic’s airports handled almost 30 million passengers, with Dublin accounting for 81% of flights.

AIX‐LA‐CHAPELLE, TREATY OFPeace treaty signed on 7 Oct. 1748 at the free imperial city of Aix‐la‐Chapelle (German, Aachen), ending the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. It largely restored wartime conquests to their pre‐war rulers. It also renewed the trading contract (Spanish asiento) granted to Great Britain by Spain in 1713, and reconfirmed recognition of the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION (see UTRECHT, PEACE OF). Britain subsequently surrendered the asiento in return for other concessions (treaty of Madrid, 24 Sept. 1750). See also ROBINSON, THOMAS.ALABAMA AFFAIRA dispute between Great Britain and the USA. In 1862, during the AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, the British government failed to impound a vessel built at Birkenhead (NW England) for use as a cruiser by the breakaway American Confederacy. As the Alabama, it inflicted considerable damage on US Federal shipping. The USA demanded compensation and, after protracted negotiations, Britain agreed in 1872 to pay $15.5 million for damages caused by the Alabama and ten other British‐built ships.ALBANY, 2ND DUKE OFsee STEWART, MURDOCHALBANY, 3RD DUKE OFsee STEWART, ALEXANDERALBANY, 4TH DUKE ofsee STEWART, JOHNALBANY, ROBERT DUKE OFsee STEWART, ROBERTALBERT OF SAXE‐COBURG(b. 26 Aug. 1819 at Schloss Rosenau, Saxe‐Coburg‐Saalfeld, Germany; d. 14 Dec. 1861 at Windsor, Berkshire, England, aged 42). In 1840 Albert, a younger son of Duke Ernst I of Saxe‐Coburg‐Gotha, married his first cousin VICTORIA, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. Intensely serious and obviously foreign, he was never widely popular, but his intelligence gradually won the respect of senior politicians. Under his influence, Victoria became an impartial (though still active) constitutional monarch, and respectable domesticity characterized the royal family. Eager to advance art, science and technology, Albert promoted the GREAT EXHIBITION (1851). He was given the title of ‘prince consort’ in 1857. He died of typhoid. See also KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1680S.ALCHEMYA mixture of pseudo‐scientific and philosophical thought which sought the ‘philosopher’s stone’, a substance that would turn base metals (e.g., lead, copper) into gold or silver. Alchemy flourished in England during the 14th–17th centuries and is recorded in Scotland in the early 16th century. It declined after the SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION of the 17th century. See also DEE, JOHN; NEWTON, ISAAC.ALCUIN(b. c.740 in Northumbria; d. 19 May 804 at Tours, Francia, aged about 64). Master of the cathedral school at York, Northumbria (NE England), Alcuin was invited by Charlemagne, king of the Franks, to advise on educational and Church matters (781). He lived in Francia from 786 (returned to Northumbria 790–3), and was abbot of St Martin at Tours from 796. He revised the Frankish liturgy, wrote books on many subjects, participated in theological disputes, and corresponded with English kings and clergy (over 300 letters survive). See also EDUCATION AND LEARNING, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.ALEHOUSES, TAVERNS, INNS

Alehouses were ordinary houses in which people bought and consumed ale (barley‐based alcohol), which was usually brewed on the premises, sometimes by women. In existence by the 11th century, they were widespread in towns and the countryside in the 14th century, their presence indicated by signs. Poorer people could augment their income by running an alehouse. In England in the late 16th and 17th centuries, as probably elsewhere, alehouses became more numerous in relation to the population. Beer replaced ale, sometimes provided by commercial ‘common brewers’. Authorities viewed alehouses as unruly and subversive places, and attempted to control them through LICENSING and other means. They were called ‘public houses’ (or ‘pubs’) from the 18th century, and from the 1820s onwards were often purpose‐built.

Taverns were rooms or buildings for the sale and consumption of wine. As it was more expensive than ale, taverns attracted a better‐off clientele, and occurred mainly in towns. Well established by the 13th century, by the 16th century they also provided meals. Taverns lost their distinctiveness from the 18th century.

Inns provided lodgings for travellers and usually also stabling for horses. Although of earlier origin, they were familiar in towns from the late 14th century, with most small towns having two or three inns and larger towns many more. Some were substantial businesses with numerous rooms, and innkeepers might be important local figures. Inns were used as meeting places, and in the late 17th–early 19th centuries some were social centres for GENTRY. During the same period, inns on main roads facilitated stage‐coaching. Inns were superseded from the 19th century by hotels, which concentrated on provision of accommodation.

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM

(b. c.1567 in Scotland; d. 12 Sept. 1640 at London, England, aged about 73). As tutor to Prince HENRY, eldest son of King JAMES VI of Scotland, Alexander moved to England with James on the UNION OF CROWNS (1603). He was knighted (1609) and, on Henry's death (1612), transferred to the household of Henry's younger brother Charles.

In 1621 Alexander was granted NOVA SCOTIA, where he attempted, unsuccessfully, to establish a Scottish colony. From 1626 until his death, he was CHARLES I's SECRETARY OF STATE for Scotland (based in England); he remained a staunch royalist. He was created Viscount (1630) and earl of Stirling (1633).

ALEXANDER I

(b. c.1077; d. 23 April 1124 at Stirling, C Scotland, aged about 48). King of Scots (Scotland) 1107–24.

The fifth son of MALCOLM III and MARGARET (both d. 1093), Alexander succeeded his brother EDGAR (8 Jan. 1107). By 1113, he ceded subordinate rule of S Scotland to his younger brother (see DAVID I). Alexander championed autonomy for the Scottish Church (against claims from archbishops of YORK, England): in 1109 his new bishop of ST ANDREWS, Turgot (d. 1115), probably withheld obedience when consecrated by the archbishop. Alexander also brought Augustinian canons from England to SCONE (c.1115). Succeeded by David I. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; RELIGIOUS ORDERS.

ALEXANDER II

(b. 24 Aug. 1198 at Haddington, Lothian, SE Scotland; d. 8 July 1249 at Kerrera, Argyll, W Scotland, aged 50). King of Scots (Scotland) 1214–49. Alexander succeeded WILLIAM I (father) aged 16 (4 Dec. 1214) and joined the rebellion against King JOHN of England, seeking to regain northern English counties (see DAVID I). In Aug. 1216, he led an army to Dover, SE England, where he did homage to Prince Louis of France for the counties, agreeing they would remain within England. But Alexander’s assertion of authority over the territories in spring 1217 (following John’s death in Oct. 1216) caused the papal legate in England to place Alexander and leading subjects under an interdict. On 1 Dec. he surrendered CARLISLE in return for absolution, and soon afterwards did homage to HENRY III for other English lands. In 1221 Alexander married Henry's sister Joan.

Alexander exerted authority within Scotland by suppressing rebellions in MORAY, NE Scotland (1228–30), and GALLOWAY, SW Scotland (1235). In 1237 he renounced claims to N England (treaty of YORK). Following another treaty with England (1244), Alexander sought to acquire the WESTERN ISLES. He died while expelling Ewen, son of Duncan, agent of King Haakon IV of Norway. Succeeded by ALEXANDER III. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; ENGLAND, FRENCH INVASION (1216–17).

ALEXANDER III

(b. 4 Sept. 1241 at Roxburgh, SE Scotland; d. 8 March 1286 near Kinghorn, Fife, E Scotland, aged 44). King of Scots (Scotland) 1249–86. Alexander succeeded ALEXANDER II (father) aged 7 (8 July 1249). In 1251 he married Margaret, daughter of King HENRY III of England. During his minority, until 1260, rival factions (particularly the COMYN family and Alan Durward) periodically replaced each other in royal offices. Henry III also intervened.

Alexander acquired suzerainty of the WESTERN ISLES and Isle of MAN from Norway in 1266 (see LARGS, BATTLE OF; PERTH, TREATY OF). Thereafter his reign was peaceful (including good relations with England), and probably highly successful. Alexander died after falling from his horse. His children were already dead; he was succeeded by his grand‐daughter, MARGARET, ‘THE MAID OF NORWAY'. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS.

ALFRED

(b. 848 or 849 at Wantage, Wessex; d. 26 Oct. 899 in Wessex, aged about 50). The fourth son of King ÆTHELWULF to rule WESSEX (S England), Alfred succeeded his brother Æthelred as king in April 871. VIKINGS were attempting to overrun Wessex (one of only three remaining Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms). In 878 much of Wessex capitulated; Alfred fled into hiding at Athelney (Somerset). Soon afterwards, he defeated a Viking army at EDINGTON (Wiltshire) and made terms with their leader, Guthrum (treaty of Wedmore). He constructed BURHS (fortresses) around Wessex to increase its security. By 883, Alfred was overking of (western) MERCIA, and in 886 he captured LONDON and the Thames Valley. He successfully countered further Viking attacks (892–6).

Alfred recruited scholars from Francia, Mercia and Wales to help raise standards of LITERACY and Christian knowledge among the Wessex clergy and nobles (see ASSER). He himself translated several books from Latin into Old English, and commissioned the ANGLO‐SAXON CHRONICLE . He adopted the title ‘king of the Anglo‐Saxons'. The legend of Alfred, at Athelney, allowing cakes to burn while he pondered his future dates from the 10th century. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; ANGLO‐SAXONS.

ALIEN ACTLegislation passed by the English Parliament in Feb. 1705 in response to anti‐English Acts of the Scottish Parliament, especially the Act of SECURITY. It required Scotland to begin negotiations for union by 25 Dec. 1705 or accept the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. If ignored, punitive measures would follow (including the treatment of Scots coming to England as aliens). It stirred anti‐English feeling in Scotland (see WORCESTER AFFAIR) but succeeded in its purpose. See also UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.ALIEN PRIORIES, ENGLAND AND WALES

Religious houses, generally small (some very small, with two or three monks), which were founded mainly in the late 11th and 12th centuries following the NORMAN CONQUEST. Perhaps totalling about 100, they were controlled and often staffed from overseas monasteries, many in NORMANDY.

During conflict with France, the king seized the priories’ estates to obtain their revenues (1295–1303, 1337–60, 1369–99). Several larger houses obtained independence (so‐called ‘denization’), but many of the smaller ones were confiscated and suppressed by 1414. Their estates were used to endow new institutions such as colleges in OXFORD and CAMBRIDGE. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND/WALES; EDWARD I; HUNDRED YEARS WAR.

ALLECTUS(d. 296 in S Britain). Of unknown origin, Allectus was probably the chief finance minister of the usurper CARAUSIUS, whom he assassinated in 293, thereby replacing him as ruler of ROMAN BRITAIN. Allectus held power for three years (293–6), until he was defeated and killed by Asclepiodotus, praetorian prefect of Emperor Constantius I, at an unknown site in S Britain (perhaps in modern Hampshire).ALLENBY, EDMUND(b. 23 April 1861 at Brackenhurst Hall, Nottinghamshire, England; d. 14 May 1936 at London, England, aged 75). A soldier from 1881, Allenby held commands in the (Second) BOER WAR (1899–1902) and WORLD WAR I (from 1914). As commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from June 1917, he led campaigns against the Ottoman Turks in PALESTINE. The Third Battle of Gaza (Oct.–Dec.) resulted in the capture of Jerusalem, which Allenby entered dramatically on 11 Dec. He commanded a final offensive northwards in Sept.–Oct. 1918, which left him in charge of an extensive area. Allenby served as special high commissioner to EGYPT (1919–25), when he oversaw its recognition as a sovereign state. He was created Viscount Allenby in 1919.ALLIANCE PARTY

A political party in NORTHERN IRELAND, founded on 21 April 1970. Originating in the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, it sought to be non‐sectarian, centrist and liberal. It drew support mainly from urban middle‐class Unionists (initially former supporters of Terence O'NEILL) and nationalists (many formerly supporters of the Northern Ireland Labour Party).

Alliance joined the power‐sharing Executive of 1974. It supported the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998), and was usually the fifth largest party in the subsequent ASSEMBLY. From 2010, it participated in the EXECUTIVE, but became critical of the power‐sharing system, claiming that ‘horse trading’ between the major sectarian parties deepened sectarian divisions. It left the Executive for opposition in 2016.

AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS(fl. in mid 5th century in Britain). A British military leader, from a Roman background. According to GILDAS, he roused defeated Britons (in W or SW Britain) to challenge rebellious ‘Saxons' (possibly in 440s). The Britons were successful, though a long period of indecisive conflict followed, lasting until the battle of MOUNT BADON. See POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; VORTIGERN.AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND GREAT BRITAIN

British opinion was divided over the secession of the pro‐slavery southern states of the USA in 1861. Many British aristocrats favoured the southern plantation owners, and some traders anticipated free markets in the newly formed Confederate States of America. Radicals such as John BRIGHT, however, passionately supported the Union. The TRENT INCIDENT (Nov.–Dec. 1861) and the ALABAMA AFFAIR (from 1862) created ill feeling between Britain and the USA, but Lord PALMERSTON, the British prime minister, withheld recognition from the Confederacy and preserved neutrality.

Sympathy for the southern states waned after President Abraham Lincoln’s ‘Emancipation Proclamation’ (1 Jan. 1863), which freed slaves in rebellious areas. British ships did not break the Union’s blockade, despite the impact of the COTTON FAMINE. The anti‐slavery campaign reinvigorated British Radicals, and working‐class support for a moral cause impressed the leading Liberal W.E. GLADSTONE. Thus the American Civil War indirectly helped to revive the British movement for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM. The Confederate States surrendered in April 1865. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.

AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE

In 1776, THIRTEEN COLONIES in the Americas declared independence from Great Britain as the United States of America. Their action resulted from disputes over taxation for defence costs, and the outbreak of war (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF). It was the first secession from the BRITISH EMPIRE.

Colonies co‐operated against Britain from Oct. 1765, when nine held the ‘Stamp Act Congress’ in New York to denounce Britain’s Stamp Act. The INTOLERABLE ACTS of 1774 provoked the First Continental Congress, at Philadelphia (Sept. 1774–Aug. 1776), representing 12 colonies (GEORGIA was unrepresented). It petitioned GEORGE III for redress, organized resistance, and rejected union.

After war broke out in April 1775, colonial royal governors fled and colonial congresses seized power. During the ensuing AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775–81), Congress provided co‐ordination. It authorized a ‘Continental Army’ (May 1775) and again petitioned King George (July). Radical opponents of Britain, notably Thomas PAINE, urged independence. In May 1776, Congress advised colonies to form independent governments as ‘states’. Congress voted for independence (2 July) and issued a Declaration of Independence (4 July). Eleven states also adopted new constitutions (1776–80; CONNECTICUT and RHODE ISLAND were exceptions). A Second Continental Congress, including Georgia, met from Sept. 1776. In Nov. 1777, it approved Articles of Confederation (approved by States by Feb. 1781).

On 2 March 1781 the States, still individually sovereign, inaugurated the Confederation. As it lacked a central government, the Congress of the Confederation co‐ordinated policy. Following the British surrender at YORKTOWN (19 Oct.), Congress obtained recognition of independence from Britain (in treaty of Paris, 1783). But the Confederation was considered ineffective. In 1787 a Federal Convention, convened to revise the Articles, produced a constitution. It prescribed a federal State with an elected president, government, army and navy, and bicameral legislature (implemented 2 July 1788). George WASHINGTON became president in 1789.

AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF

When the SEVEN YEARS WAR ended in 1763, Great Britain became the dominant imperial power in N America. But its acquisition of ‘New France’, including land along the Mississippi parallel to its east‐coast colonies, required provision of an army for defence. Attempts to fund this partly through taxation on the colonies were resisted.

In 1764–5 the ministry of George GRENVILLE in Britain promoted legislation affecting the colonies: the Currency Act (1764), which regulated colonial currency; the Sugar Act (1764), which increased import duties; and the Stamp Act (1765), which imposed a duty on publications and documents. Violent resistance led the ministry of the earl of ROCKINGHAM, in March 1767, to pass the Declaratory Act, which affirmed the British Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies, while also repealing the Sugar and Stamp Acts. But in June the new ministry, headed by the earl of Chatham (William PITT the Elder), imposed the ‘Townshend duties’ on the colonies (on tea, glass, paper, etc.). Protests followed, with colonists asserting there must be ‘no taxation without representation’. Most duties were withdrawn (1770).

In 1773 the Tea Act, passed for the ministry of Lord NORTH, allowed tea to be exported directly from India to America. It affected mercantile interests in Massachusetts. The violent response, notably the BOSTON TEA PARTY (Dec.), provoked coercive measures from North’s government (1774; see INTOLERABLE ACTS). Skirmishes between colonists and British troops in 1775 led to war. On 4 July 1776, a congress of 13 colonies at Philadelphia declared independence. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES; AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.

AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The attempt by Great Britain to assert authority over THIRTEEN COLONIES in N America, 1775–81, following disputes (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF).

Skirmishes broke out on 19 April 1775 in the northern colony of MASSACHUSETTS (at Lexington and Concord). Colonial militias then besieged British forces at Boston, while another colonial force invaded CANADA (May 1775–May 1776). British troops evicted a threatening force at Creed’s Hill near Boston (17 June, battle of Bunker Hill). Meanwhile the colonies’ Continental Congress had authorized (May) a ‘Continental Army’ (George WASHINGTON appointed commander‐in‐chief, June). From Oct., William HOWE commanded British forces, and Britain imposed an embargo on colonial exports (Dec.). British forces left Boston by sea in March 1776. On 4 July the Congress formally declared independence.

Britain attempted to isolate NEW ENGLAND by capturing New York City (achieved July–Sept. 1776). Its forces (including German mercenaries) then marched S into NEW JERSEY, but were defeated by Washington’s army at Trenton (26 Dec.) and Princeton (3 Jan. 1777).

In July 1777, British forces sailed to Chesapeake Bay. They defeated Washington’s army at Brandywine Creek (11 Sept.) and occupied Philadelphia, PENNSYLVANIA (26 Sept.). From June 1777, a British force also invaded from Canada to divide the colonies (British surrendered at Saratoga, 17 Oct.). In 1778, Henry Clinton replaced Howe (May), and led British forces from Philadelphia back to New York (June). The colonies were strengthened by alliance with France (Feb. 1778).

The British attempted to conquer the southern colonies, starting with GEORGIA (from Oct. 1778; captured Savannah, 29 Dec., Augusta, Jan. 1779). In SOUTH CAROLINA they took Charleston (12 May 1780) and were victorious at Camden (16 Aug.). In NORTH CAROLINA they fought at Guildford Courthouse (15 March 1781). After resting at Wilmington (April), they moved N into VIRGINIA, but were besieged at YORKTOWN, where George CORNWALLIS surrendered (19 Oct.). See also AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.

AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, IMPACT ON IRELAND

The war (1775–81) dramatically affected Ireland, partly because of inept reactions by the British and Irish governments. After war began, the British government imposed additional restrictions on Irish food exports (3 Feb. 1776), to sustain supplies to Britain. This plus a trade recession caused resentment, eventually provoking the NON-IMPORTATION MOVEMENT (1778–9). The Irish government's refusal to fund a militia in 1778, after troops were redeployed to coastal areas (following France's alliance with the USA, Feb. 1778), resulted in the formation of the VOLUNTEERS (voluntary militia), who became politically active.

After a British army in N America surrendered at YORKTOWN (1781), PATRIOT members of the Irish Parliament (e.g., Henry GRATTAN; earl of CHARLEMONT) recruited Volunteer support and pressed for greater autonomy for Ireland. The result was the CONSTITUTION OF 1782. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY; BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 2ND EARL OF.

AMERY, LEOPOLD(b. 22 Nov. 1873 at Gorakhpur, North Western Provinces, India; d. 16 Sept. 1955 at London, England, aged 81). As a writer and editor in Great Britain for The Times 1899–1909, concerned with SOUTH AFRICA, Amery admired the imperial policies of Alfred MILNER. He became a prominent champion of the BRITISH EMPIRE. A Conservative MP 1911–45, he held government posts from 1917. As colonial secretary 1924–9, and also dominions secretary 1925–9, he supported ‘imperial preference’ (see TARIFF REFORM) and advocated the idea of a ‘co‐operative Commonwealth’. He was secretary of state for INDIA and BURMA 1940–5. See also DOMINION; COMMONWEALTH.AMICABLE GRANTIn England, a TAX instigated in 1525 by Thomas WOLSEY for King HENRY VIII, to fund an invasion of France. It was imposed by ROYAL PREROGATIVE, rather than granted by Parliament, and was to be levied on clergy and laity. Following soon after other heavy taxation, the collection (from April) generated popular resistance and was abandoned (by 13 May).AMIENS, PEACE OFA truce between Great Britain and France concluded at Amiens, France, on 27 March 1802 (negotiated for the ministry of Henry ADDINGTON). It halted hostilities during the NAPOLEONIC WARS by fudging controversial strategic issues. Terms included the abandonment by the British Crown of its 14th‐century claim to the French Crown (see FRANCE, CLAIMS BY RULERS OF ENGLAND). French intervention in Italy and Switzerland, coupled with Britain’s refusal to evacuate MALTA, sparked renewed conflict in May 1803.AMRITSAR MASSACREA notorious incident in the city of Amritsar (NW India) on 13 April 1919 (also known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre), when a British commander, Brigadier‐General Sir Reginald Dyer, ordered troops (mostly Indians) to fire on a large crowd of protestors in a walled recreation ground. It happened soon after wartime emergency powers in India had been extended (so‐called Rowlatt Act), and in reprisal for recent violent protests in Amritsar. Possibly 500–600 people were killed and 1500 were wounded. The event discredited British rule in INDIA.ANARCHISMA political creed based on the belief that government is evil and can be abolished. Anarchists reject restraints on spontaneous action and generally favour violent revolution. Developed in 19th‐century Europe, the doctrine spread from foreign exiles to a few British extremists.ANARCHYTerm used to describe conditions in NORMANDY and England (especially the latter) during struggles to oust STEPHEN as ruler (in Normandy 1138–44, in England 1139–54). Based on contemporary accounts, the term suggests a total breakdown of authority. Modern study has shown that in England, each side exercised some authority over extensive areas (including issue of CURRENCY), and that disorder was often circumscribed (e.g., by local pacts between opponents). See also MATILDA; DAVID I.ANCIENT CONSTITUTIONA concept formulated in England in the early 17th century, particularly by Edward COKE (d. 1634), which claimed that royal power had been regulated by COMMON LAW since at least the time of King ÆTHELBERT of Kent (d. 616). Englishmen therefore possessed inherited liberties. The concept influenced opponents of JAMES VI/I and CHARLES I, who by contrast claimed unfettered prerogative rights of divine origin (see DIVINE RIGHT MONARCHY).ANCIENT ORDER OF HIBERNIANSA Catholic men's charitable society (with women's branch), which was refounded in the USA in 1838. After Church condemnation (for secrecy) was lifted in 1904, the small Irish branch was reorganized by Joseph DEVLIN, who presided over its controlling ‘Board of Erin' 1905–34. The Order expanded rapidly, mainly in N Ireland, to 60,000 members in 1909, 120,000 in 1915. They provided a ‘power base' for Devlin and the IRISH PARLIAMENTARY PARTY, and countered the Protestant ORANGE ORDER. Membership fell rapidly from c.1970.ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT(b. 9 June 1836 at London, England; d. 17 Dec. 1917 at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, England, aged 81). Elizabeth Garrett joined the LANGHAM PLACE CIRCLE in the mid 1850s. Inspired by Elizabeth Blackwell, an English woman with a US medical degree, she qualified as an apothecary (1865), obtained a medical degree from Paris University (1870), and joined the British Medical Association (1873), making her England’s first qualified woman doctor. She also founded the New Hospital for Women (1868) and promoted women’s medical education. (She married in 1871.) In retirement Anderson became England’s first woman mayor (1908). See also FAWCETT, MILLICENT; WOMEN’S MOVEMENT 1850s TO 1918, GREAT BRITAIN.ANDERSON, JOHN(b. 8 July 1882 at Edinburgh, Scotland; d. 4 Jan. 1958 at London, England, aged 75). A distinguished British civil servant, Anderson served as governor of Bengal, INDIA, 1932–7, and was an Independent MP 1938–50 (for Scottish universities). From 1938 he contributed to preparations for wartime conditions in the UK. A prefabricated domestic bomb shelter which he commissioned (Nov. 1938) became known as the ‘Anderson shelter’. After the outbreak of WORLD WAR II, he was appointed home secretary (Sept. 1939). He then dominated civil administration as lord president of the Council with responsibility for economic mobilization (1940–3) and as chancellor of the Exchequer (1943–5). Anderson was created Viscount Waverley in 1952.ANEIRIN(fl. in early 7th century). A Welsh ‘early poet'. His poem Y Gododdin (‘The Gododdin') celebrates an unsuccessful raid c.600 by Britons from EDINBURGH in GODODDIN (SE Scotland) against SAXONS probably at Catterick (N Yorkshire, England). Originally composed in Primitive Welsh, it survives in Old Welsh (9th–11th centuries) copied c.1250. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.ANGEVIN EMPIRE

Historians’ term for territories in France and the British Isles accumulated in the 11th–12th centuries by the ‘Angevins’, i.e., counts of Anjou (vassals of the king of France).

Count Fulk IV (ruled 1068–1109) conquered Touraine, and Fulk V (1109–29) acquired Maine by marriage to an heiress. His son Geoffrey Plantagenet acquired a claim to NORMANDY and England through marriage (1128) to MATILDA, daughter of HENRY I. Geoffrey succeeded as count in 1129 (father’s abdication) and conquered Normandy (1142–4; see STEPHEN).

Angevin rule reached its zenith under Geoffrey’s son Henry (see HENRY II), who was duke of Normandy from 1150 (grant from father) and count of Anjou (by hereditary succession) from 1151. From 1152, he was also duke of Aquitaine (through marriage to ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE), and from 1154 king of England (succession by treaty). Between 1166 and 1178 he established control over Brittany, and in 1171 assumed the lordship of Ireland (see HENRY II AND IRELAND). In 1174 he imposed terms on the king of Scotland (see FALAISE, TREATY OF).

Henry and his successors RICHARD and JOHN allowed territories to retain their customs and governments. John lost most of his French lands in 1202–4 (seized by Philip II of France), retaining only the CHANNEL ISLANDS, part of Poitou and GASCONY (latter two territories from duchy of Aquitaine). Poitou was lost in 1224, though attempts were made to recover it in 1225–7, 1230 and 1242 (see HENRY III). See also NORMAN EMPIRE; FRANCE, CLAIMS BY RULERS OF ENGLAND.

ANGLES

Name applied in the 7th–10th centuries (OE, Engle) to inhabitants of Germanic culture in eastern parts of Britain, roughly (N–S) from the Firth of Forth to the R. Stour (in East Anglia). According to BEDE (in 731), they were derived from Continental Angles, who lived in and were named after Angeln on the Jutland peninsula (in modern N Germany), and who were one of three Continental peoples who produced migrants to Britain (5th–6th centuries). The connection between Angeln and Britain is affirmed by archaeological evidence (e.g., cruciform brooches worn by women). In Britain, ‘Angles’ formed one of two large groupings of Germanic inhabitants (alongside SAXONS).

By the late 6th century there was a kingdom of EAST ANGLIA (roughly modern Norfolk and Suffolk in E England), although its rulers may have been of Swedish rather than Anglian origin; its inhabitants are recorded as ‘East Angles’ (e.g., in the TRIBAL HIDAGE). According to Bede, peoples W of East Anglia were ‘Middle Angles’ (though there was no Middle Anglian kingdom), and rulers and inhabitants of MERCIA, DEIRA and BERNICIA were also Angles. (The Anglian area must have included Britons and other inhabitants.)

The name Angles was used in Latin (‘Angli’) by Gregory the Great (Pope 590–604) for all Germanic inhabitants of Britain, a practice followed by Bede (though he also distinguished Angles, Saxons and others) and other 8th‐century writers. From the later 9th century, Anglian identity was the basis for the promotion of a broader ‘English’ identity, which eventually superseded narrower identities (see ENGLISH). See also GERMANIC IMMIGRATION, SOUTHERN BRITAIN.

ANGLESEY

An island off NW Wales; from Old Norse, Ongulsey, meaning ‘Ongull's island' (Welsh, Môn, meaning unknown).

Until late 1282 Anglesey contained the chief court (Welsh llys) of the kings of GWYNEDD at Aberffro. After the English conquest of native Wales, Anglesey became a shire (1284–1974; then a district within Gwynedd county; a unitary authority from 1996). Once renowned for agricultural wealth, Anglesey was linked to the mainland by the Menai suspension bridge designed by Thomas TELFORD (built 1819–26), and by the Britannia railway bridge (1846–9).

ANGLICAN COMMUNION

An international association of autonomous Churches, mostly derived from the Church of ENGLAND and in communion with the see of CANTERBURY (SE England), dating from the 19th century. The Churches of England and Ireland were informally associated in the 16th–18th centuries (united 1801–70), and those churches with the EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN SCOTLAND (from early 18th century).

Churches based on the Church of England’s episcopal organization, liturgy and doctrine were created after AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, starting with the Protestant Episcopal Church in the USA (1789). Thereafter, Churches were founded in the BRITISH EMPIRE through the consecration of bishops in England (e.g., bishop for NEW SOUTH WALES, 1836) and development of provinces (groups of dioceses). In 1867, at the request of the Canadian Church, Archbishop Charles Longley held the first ‘Lambeth Conference’ of bishops (in England) to consider problems of doctrine and governance. Conferences were held thereafter at roughly 10‐year intervals (without legislative authority). In 2015, the Communion comprised 38 provinces and six other jurisdictions. See also MISSIONARY SOCIETIES.

ANGLICIZATION, IRELAND

English and Welsh immigrants settled widely after the Anglo‐Norman invasion (1169–70), and English institutions and culture were introduced (see NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND). But Gaelic culture endured and aspects were adopted by Anglo‐Irish inhabitants despite prohibition (see KILKENNY, STATUTE OF).

From the 1530s the English government aspired to ‘civilize’ the Gaelic Irish by spreading English culture and reformed Christianity. In the 16th–17th centuries, the reassertion of English government, immigration by English and Scots for PLANTATIONS, and the CROMWELLIAN LAND SETTLEMENT spread English and English customs. During the 18th century, following the demise of the Gaelic LEARNED CLASSES, Gaelic Irish people (including Catholic clergy) increasingly adopted English. By 1851, only 5% of the population were monoglot Irish speakers. In the 20th century, English remained the primary language, and English law and culture persisted in southern Ireland. See also IRISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

ANGLICIZATION, SCOTLAND

Most English influences have been imported rather than imposed from outside. Scots, derived from northern English, replaced Gaelic in the Lowlands in the 12th–16th centuries, and English Bibles were influential from the REFORMATION (1560).

After the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707), English influences steadily increased. They were transmitted by nobles (especially peers), who lived and married in England and educated their children there, while writers of the Scottish ENLIGHTENMENT purged their language of Scottish idioms. Connections with England were strengthened from the 1840s by RAILWAYS. In the late 19th century landlords and urban upper middle classes became increasingly anglicized, through adherence to the EPISCOPAL CHURCH, which was strongly influenced by the Church of ENGLAND, and through attendance at new schools modelled on English ‘public schools'. Many institutions, however (in LAW and EDUCATION, and the presbyterian churches), and aspects of life (e.g., DIET) were resistant to English influences. See also SCOTTISH LITERATURE IN ENGLISH; SCOTS LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, NORTH BRITAIN AND SCOTLAND; GAELDOM, SCOTLAND.

ANGLICIZATION, WALES

In 1800, probably 80% of the population of Wales spoke Welsh, and the great majority knew no other language. By 1900, the number of Welsh speakers doubled, but the proportion fell to 50%. Most subsequent censuses registered decline. By 1991, 18.7% of the inhabitants of Wales (511,000) claimed a knowledge of Welsh. However, the situation appeared to be stabilizing and centres of growth could be discerned.

Causes of the decline in the proportion of Welsh speakers included the impact of immigration; the influence of English mass media; the assumption that English is more genteel and more useful; and indifference or hostility of schools – though from the 1940s schools generally supported Welsh and many WELSH‐MEDIUM SCHOOLS were established. In 2011 Welsh was spoken by 19% of usual residents aged 3 and over. See also WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; BROADCASTING, WALES.

ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS

Three naval wars between England and the Dutch Republic, between 1652 and 1674. Their principal cause was commercial rivalry, in Africa, Asia and N America, but dynastic and religious factors were involved.

The first war, during the COMMONWEALTH period, was triggered by Dutch resentment of the 1651 NAVIGATION ACT. Fleets clashed in April 1652, and England declared war on 30 June. The war was ended by the treaty of Westminster (5 April 1654). The Dutch accepted the Navigation Act and agreed to deny assistance to the exiled King CHARLES II.

After Charles’s RESTORATION (1660), suspicions of Dutch ties with English republicans contributed to war from Feb. 1665. James, duke of York, defeated the Dutch at the battle of Lowestoft (3 July). In 1666, fleets clashed in the North Sea on 1–4 June (so‐called ‘Four Days Battle’). In 1667 the Dutch attacked English ships on the R. Medway (12 June, the ‘Black Day’). Peace was agreed on 21 July (treaty of Breda, including confirmation of England’s possession of NEW YORK). The earl of CLARENDON was dismissed in Aug.

England again declared war on 17 March 1672, in conjunction with France (under treaty of DOVER, 1670). Fleets clashed on 28 May at Southwold Bay, England. Parliament forced Charles to withdraw a recent Declaration of INDULGENCE and accept a TEST ACT (March 1673) in return for funds. Political opposition forced Charles to make peace in 1674 (treaty of Westminster, 19 Feb.). See also STOP OF THE EXCHEQUER; JAMES VII/II.

ANGLO‐FRENCH CONVENTIONAn agreement signed on 8 April 1904 at Westminster, London, by the British foreign secretary, the marquess of LANSDOWNE, to settle Anglo‐French colonial disputes, notably regarding Egypt, Morocco and W Africa. It established the Entente cordiale (French, meaning ‘friendly understanding’) between Great Britain and France which developed into a defensive arrangement by 1914. See also FRANCE, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; AGADIR CRISIS.ANGLO‐GERMAN NAVAL AGREEMENTAn arrangement concluded on 18 June 1935 whereby Great Britain accepted a German demand for agreement to expand its naval forces to 35% of British naval strength, enabling Germany to surpass French naval forces. Ostensibly a measure of arms limitation, it constituted APPEASEMENT because German naval construction contravened the treaty of VERSAILLES (1919). See also GERMANY, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.ANGLO‐IRISH AGREEMENT (1985)see HILLSBOROUGH AGREEMENTANGLO‐IRISH AGREEMENTS (1938)Agreements on defence, finance and trade signed 25 April 1938 in London by delegations of the British and Irish governments, ending the six‐year ‘Economic War'. Great Britain would return three ‘treaty ports' in southern Ireland (retained since Irish independence). Southern Ireland would pay £10 million to settle unpaid land annuities. Both countries would remove penal customs duties. See also ECONOMIC WAR; SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922.ANGLO‐IRISH LITERATURE

Term used to distinguish literature of Irish origin written in English from literature in Irish. It often refers specifically to writing by Irish authors of English descent, starting as early as the 14th century, and to writers associated with the Protestant ASCENDANCY (18th–20th centuries). In the later 19th and early 20th centuries, such literature was condemned as ‘un‐Irish’ by leaders of the GAELIC REVIVAL, though W.B. YEATS and others argued that literature in both English and Irish contributed to the development of a national canon. English literature of Irish origin since the 1920s–30s is usually described as ‘Irish’.

Notable Anglo‐Irish authors include Jonathan SWIFT (1667–1745), George Berkeley (1685–1753), Edmund BURKE (1729–97), Oliver Goldsmith (1730–74), Maria Edgeworth (1767–1849), Augusta Gregory (1852–1932), Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), George Bernard SHAW (1856–1950), ‘Somerville and Ross’ (cousins Edith Somerville, 1858–1949, and Violet Martin, known as Martin Ross, 1862–1915), Yeats (1865–1939) and Elizabeth Bowen (1899–1973). See also IMMIGRATION TO IRELAND.

ANGLO‐IRISH SOCIETYsee NORMAN IRISH FAMILIES OR OLD ENGLISHANGLO‐IRISH TREATY

Signed 6 Dec. 1921 at 10 Downing St, London (residence of the British prime minister), by members of the British government (including David LLOYD GEORGE) and representatives of the Dáil Éireann or ‘Assembly of Ireland' (including Arthur GRIFFITH and Michael COLLINS).

The treaty provided for an effectively independent ‘Irish Free State', with informal DOMINION status, from which Northern Ireland (six counties) could (and did) opt out. It was ratified by the Dáil (7 Jan. 1922), but rejected by many republicans (including Éamon DE VALERA) because it confirmed the PARTITION OF IRELAND and retained allegiance to the British Crown. Divisions over the treaty escalated into the IRISH CIVIL WAR. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF; BOUNDARY COMMISSION.

ANGLO‐JAPANESE ALLIANCEA treaty concluded on 30 Jan. 1902 at Westminster, London, by the British foreign secretary, the marquess of LANSDOWNE, and the Japanese representative Baron Tadasu Hayashi. The countries undertook to defend each other’s interests in E Asia against attack by any two powers. Initially aimed at curbing Russian expansionism, the alliance was strengthened in 1905, modified in 1911, and abandoned in 1921. See also JAPAN, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.ANGLO‐PERSIAN OIL COMPANYA commercial company formed in 1909 with support of the British government following the discovery of oil in Persia (Iran). Great Britain acquired a controlling interest in 1914 to obtain a reliable fuel supply for its NAVY. The government supervised policy but avoided involvement in commercial administration. The company was renamed the Anglo‐Iranian Oil Company in 1935, and British Petroleum in 1954. From 1954 Iran’s oil was exploited by a consortium including British Petroleum. See also OIL INDUSTRY.ANGLO‐POLISH GUARANTEEAn undertaking announced by the British prime minister Neville CHAMBERLAIN on 31 March 1939, whereby Great Britain would resist any threat to the independence of Poland. Provoked by the German invasion of CZECHOSLOVAKIA, it was reinforced by an Anglo‐Polish alliance (25 Aug. 1939). Germany’s attack on Poland on 1 Sept. caused Britain to declare war (3 Sept.), but it was unable to defend Poland. See also POLAND, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; WORLD WAR II, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.ANGLO‐RUSSIAN CONVENTIONA treaty signed on 31 Aug. 1907 at Westminster, London, by government representatives to reduce friction between Great Britain and RUSSIA in Asia. The powers agreed spheres of influence in PERSIA (Iran), AFGHANISTAN and Tibet (under Chinese suzerainty). With the ANGLO‐FRENCH CONVENTION (1904), it furthered the development of an anti‐German bloc. See also RUSSIA AND USSR, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.ANGLO‐SAXON CHRONICLEAn account of events mainly in Anglo‐Saxon England, arranged by year and written in Old English. It was originally compiled from various sources in the late 9th century, probably for King ALFRED. The earliest content is dubious. From 648 some entries may be contemporary. The Chronicle was continued in separate versions to the mid 11th century, and in one text until 1154.ANGLO‐SAXONS

Term used from 883 (alongside others) in writings connected with the court of ALFRED, king of WESSEX (e.g., Latin description of Alfred as Angulsaxonum rex, ‘king of the Anglo‐Saxons’). It recognized peoples combined under Alfred’s rule: SAXONS of Wessex (S England) and ANGLES of (western) MERCIA (W Midlands).

After Alfred’s death (899), the term was retained by his son EDWARD THE ELDER (ruled 899–924), but dropped by Edward’s successor ATHELSTAN from 927 when he expanded the territory under his rule (see ENGLISH). The term is used more broadly by historians to describe Germanic rulers and culturally Germanic inhabitants in southern Britain in the 5th–10th centuries (sometimes until the Norman invasion of 1066). See also GERMANIC IMMIGRATION, SOUTHERN BRITAIN; KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.

ANGLO‐SCOTTISH BORDERsee BORDER, ANGLO‐SCOTTISHANGLO‐SPANISH WAR

A conflict of varying intensity, 1585–1604. It arose largely from Spain’s attempt to suppress a revolt (from 1566) in the Netherlands (modern Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and part of NE France), which then belonged to the king of Spain, Philip II. England’s ruler, ELIZABETH I, feared that if (Catholic) Spain suppressed local liberties and established absolute rule, (Protestant) England’s security and commercial interests would be threatened. Spain sought to re‐establish Catholicism in England.

Relations deteriorated from Dec. 1568 when Genoese‐owned bullion was seized from Spanish ships taking shelter in English ports. Retaliation, ordered by Spain’s ambassador, included banning English imports into the Netherlands. In 1570–1, following the Pope’s excommunication of Elizabeth, Philip encouraged the RIDOLFI PLOT. Relations improved, and trade restarted, in 1573 (convention of Nijmegen). Elizabeth ostensibly acted as mediator in the Netherlands, despite pressure to intervene from English Protestants, while allowing English seamen to attack Spanish ships in the Americas.

In Aug. 1585, fearing a Spanish victory, Elizabeth agreed to assist (Dutch) rebels in the northern Netherlands. She dispatched military forces (from Aug. 1585), and a naval expedition attacked Spanish ports in the Americas (1585–6). The land force, as initially led by Robert, earl of LEICESTER (1585—6, 1587), had limited effect (although troops remained). Philip responded by planning an invasion of England. Delayed in 1587 by an English raid on Cádiz (SW Spain), it was thwarted in 1588 (see SPANISH ARMADA). The English attempted a revenge attack on Spanish‐ruled Lisbon (Portugal) in 1589, commanded by Francis DRAKE.

In the 1590s England mounted five major naval expeditions, including another attack on Cádiz (1596). Spain sent three expeditions, two of them to Ireland (see NINE YEARS WAR). English troops also supported Dutch land forces. Peace was concluded in 1604 by JAMES VI/I of England. See also SPAIN, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.

ANGLO‐WELSH RELATIONS, 6TH–13TH CENTURIES

During this period, relations were usually antagonistic, with English rulers normally in the stronger position, but positions often varied according to shifting political conditions, especially in England.

In the 6th and 7th centuries Welsh and English kings sometimes made equal alliances (see CADWALLON AP CADFAN). But Mercian expansion in the 7th and 8th centuries confined Welsh rulers (see BORDER, ANGLO‐WELSH). The rise of WESSEX (9th and 10th centuries) and creation of England increased subjugation: in the 10th century Welsh kings were compelled to acknowledge the English king, at his court, as overlord (see ENGLAND, FORMATION OF). In the early 11th century Welsh kings, such as GRUFFUDD AP LLYWELYN, exploited political instability in England by raiding England.

The advent of NORMANS from the 1070s further disadvantaged Welsh rulers. With the creation of the MARCH OF WALES, they additionally confronted Norman (later English) lords, whose outlook generally (but not always) reflected English royal policy. Norman and Angevin rulers of England (respectively 1066–1154, 1154–1216) generally sought to maintain overlordship over Welsh rulers rather than attempt conquest. Relations were sometimes peaceful (see SIWAN), and Welsh fortunes flourished under OWAIN GWYNEDD of Gwynedd and RHYS AP GRUFFUDD of DEHEUBARTH in the 12th century, and under the princes of Gwynedd in the 13th century, until the breakdown of relations under LLYWELYN AP GRUFFUDD of Gwynedd led to the conquest of 1282–3 under EDWARD I (see WALES, ENGLISH CONQUEST OF). See also WALES.

ANGUS, DOUGLAS EARLS OFA Scottish noble family, known as the ‘Red Douglases'; flourished 1389–1761. They were descendants of George Douglas (c.1378–1402 or 1403), illegitimate son of William, (1st) earl of Douglas, and Margaret Stewart, countess of Mar and heiress to the Angus earldom. In 1389 Margaret Stewart resigned the earldom (in E Scotland) to George Douglas. The ‘Red Douglases' became the senior Douglas family in 1455 (see DOUGLAS, EARLS OF). See also DOUGLAS, ARCHIBALD (c.1489–1557).ANNALES CAMBRIAE(Latin, meaning ‘Annals of Wales'). Latin annals recording events in Welsh history to the 13th century; probably started at ST DAVIDS in the 8th century. Three versions survive: two from St Davids (from c.955, 1288) and one from Neath (c.1286). See also BRUT Y TYWYSOGION .ANNE

(b. 6 Feb. 1665 at Westminster, Middlesex, England; d. 1 Aug. 1714 at Westminster, aged 49). The second daughter of James, duke of York (JAMES VII/II from 1685), Anne was raised as a Protestant. She married in 1683. She supported the accession in 1689 of WILLIAM III and MARY II (her elder sister), following James’s flight (see GLORIOUS REVOLUTION), and accepted succession arrangements made after her heir’s death in 1700 (see SETTLEMENT, ACT OF).

Anne succeeded William on 8 March 1702, becoming queen of England, Ireland and Scotland. Her reign was dominated by the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION, struggles between WHIGS and TORIES, and UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707). Until 1710 Anne was guided by Lord GODOLPHIN.

Anne’s attachment to the Church of ENGLAND made her sympathetic to Tories. But their objections to the war led to reliance on Whig ministers from 1704. Her resentment of this contributed to estrangement from her confidante Sarah CHURCHILL (duchess of Marlborough), and appointment of Tory ministers including Robert HARLEY (both 1710). The Army commander, the duke of MARLBOROUGH, was dismissed in 1711, and peace was negotiated.

Anne dismissed Harley in July 1714. Her appointment of the duke of SHREWSBURY as treasurer facilitated the succession of GEORGE I. See also CABINET; OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY; UTRECHT, PEACE OF; HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION.

ANNE OF CLEVES(b. 22 Sept. 1515 in duchy of Cleves, Germany; d. 16 July 1557 at Chelsea, Middlesex, England, aged 41). The sister of William, duke of Julier‐Cleves, Anne became the fourth wife of King HENRY VIII of England (married 6 Jan. 1540). The marriage was negotiated by Thomas CROMWELL to provide an alliance with an important German state. Henry found Anne unattractive and the marriage was unconsummated. Cromwell subsequently fell from office. The marriage was declared annulled on 9 July 1540. Anne remained in England. See also HENRY VIII, WIVES OF.ANNEXING ACTAn Act of the British Parliament, passed in 1752, which annexed to the Crown 13 estates forfeited by Jacobites; one of the punitive measures taken after the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1745. Income was assigned to a Board of Annexed Estates, which was established in 1755 and consisted of 28 government appointees (mostly Scotsmen). It funded education and promoted Protestantism in the HIGHLANDS. The estates were restored to their owners, and the Board disbanded, in 1784. See also SOCIETY IN SCOTLAND FOR PROPAGATING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.ANSELM

(b. 1033 at Aosta, Italy; d. 21 April 1109 at Canterbury, Kent, England, aged 76). Anselm became a pupil of LANFRANC at Bec monastery, NORMANDY (1059), then a monk (1060), prior (1063) and abbot (1078). In 1093 he was appointed archbishop of CANTERBURY in England by King WILLIAM II.

Relations with William were difficult. Eventually, when William forbad an appeal to the Pope, Anselm went into exile (1097). He was recalled (1100) by Henry I. But Anselm opposed royal investiture of bishops and returned to exile (1103–6). He and Henry agreed a compromise (1106, confirmed 1107; see HENRY I). Anselm wrote influential theological works, including the Proslogion which propounds an all‐inclusive single proof for the existence of God. He was canonized in 1494.

ANTARCTIC, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT

From the 1760s, the British asserted a presence in the Pacific Ocean and searched for a long‐suspected southern continent. Following expeditions commanded by John Byron (1764–6), Samuel Wallis (1766–8) and James COOK (1768–71), the second expedition of Cook (1772–5) included three ice‐edge cruises (without sighting land) and discovery of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

In 1819 British commander William Smith made the first sighting of land S of 60° latitude (Feb.) and the first landing (Oct.), thereby discovering the South Shetland Islands. In Jan. 1820, while surveying, Smith and Edward Bransfield (of the Royal Navy) saw the Antarctic mainland (Antarctic Peninsula), just after a Russian expedition. A US crew probably made the first landing (1821). British sealer George Powell and an American discovered the South Orkney Islands (also 1821), and an expedition by whaler John Biscoe (1830–2) circumnavigated Antarctica. Sporadic later expeditions included those of James Ross (1839–43) and George Nares (1872–4).

More expeditions followed from the 1890s. The Southern Cross Expedition of Norwegian‐British explorer C.E. Borchgrevink (1898–1900) overwintered on the mainland. The National Antarctic Expedition under Robert Scott (1901–4) included inland journeys. The Scottish expedition of W.S. Bruce (1902–4) studied the Weddell Sea. Ernest Shackleton’s expedition (1907–9) included a journey to within 97 mi (155 km) of the South Pole. During another expedition (1910–12), Scott reached the Pole (17 Jan. 1912), but had been narrowly beaten by Norwegian Roald Amundsen. (Scott’s polar party died during the return journey.) Shackleton’s 1914–17 expedition failed. Scientific expeditions occurred in the 1920s–30s, and permanent stations were established from 1943. Vivian Fuchs made the first Antarctic crossing in 1957–8.

British exploration included claims to sovereignty and establishment of a British presence: see ANTARCTIC AND SOUTH ATLANTIC, BRITISH TERRITORIES.

ANTARCTIC AND SOUTH ATLANTIC, BRITISH TERRITORIES

Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean were claimed for Great Britain in the mid 18th century: the FALKLAND ISLANDS in 1765 by Captain John Byron of the Royal Navy; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in 1775 by Captain James COOK. Lands in the Southern Ocean were claimed in the early 19th century: the South Shetland Islands in 1819 by ship commander William Smith; the South Orkney Islands in 1821 by sealer and co‐discoverer George Powell. Graham’s Land (part of the Antarctic Peninsula) was claimed by ship commander John Biscoe in 1832.

The Falklands were constituted as a CROWN COLONY in 1841. Following inquiry from Norway, sovereignty over the other territories was reasserted in 1908, to facilitate regulation and taxation of whaling, and part of Antarctica also claimed. The lands became a crown colony known as the Falklands Islands Dependencies, administered from the Falklands. (The claim was modified in 1917, including extension of the Antarctica sector to the South Pole.) From the 1920s other countries asserted claims in Antarctica, some of which challenged the British claim. In 1959, the UK was a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty whereby claims were frozen and Antarctica reserved for peaceful uses (effective from 1961).

In 1962, the South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands and British Antarctica were separated as a colony called British Antarctic Territory. The Falklands, Falklands Dependencies (South Georgia, South Sandwich Islands) and British Antarctic Territory colonies were retitled ‘British dependent territories’ in 1983. The Falklands Dependencies became a separate dependent territory, with a constitution, in 1985 (called South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands). ‘British dependent territories’ were renamed ‘British overseas territories’ in 2002.

ANTI‐CATHOLICISM, BRITAIN

Hostility to CATHOLICS grew from the late 16th century following the REFORMATION, grounded on horror of ‘popish cruelty’ (as experienced in England and Wales with burnings under Queen MARY I), rejection of doctrines (e.g., TRANSUBSTANTIATION), and fear of papal intervention (exemplified by the excommunication of ELIZABETH I, 1570) and Catholic countries.

Anti‐Catholic laws were passed for England and Wales until 1605, treating promotion of Catholicism as treason rather than heresy, and in the late 17th century (see RECUSANCY, ENGLAND AND WALES). (Executions were by hanging rather than burning.) In Scotland from 1560, the saying and hearing of Mass were punishable; more anti‐Catholic laws and proclamations were issued into the 17th century, and extra disabilities imposed from the later 17th century (e.g., 1700, comprehensive anti‐popery Act barred inheritance of property). In the 18th century enforcement of some measures declined, and prohibitions were eventually removed, despite popular opposition, initially to legalize recruitment for the ARMY (Relief Acts for England and Wales 1778, 1791; for Scotland 1793).

Anti‐Catholicism was expressed notably in fears of Catholic coups or risings in the 1640s, during the POPISH PLOT and EXCLUSION CRISIS (1678–81), and in JACOBITE times (1689–1745); and also in riots (e.g., GORDON RIOTS, 1780; Stockport Riots, 1852; ‘Murphy Riots’ in various English towns, 1867–8, provoked by anti‐Catholic preacher William Murphy). It was strengthened by the seeming Romanism of RITUALISM in the Church of England (from 1840s). Anti‐Catholicism also excited political controversy (e.g., over MAYNOOTH GRANT, 1845). The establishment of a Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales (1850) was branded ‘papal aggression’, and provoked the Ecclesiastical Titles Act (1851) banning territorial titles (replaced 1871). Irish immigration made sectarianism significant in LIVERPOOL (from 1830s) and GLASGOW. Protestants associated Catholicism with authoritarianism, Protestantism with liberty. Although anti‐Catholicism declined in the 20th century, it remained pronounced in parts of Scotland in the 21st century. See also CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.

ANTI‐CATHOLIC LEGISLATION, ENGLAND, SCOTLAND AND WALESsee RECUSANCY, ENGLAND AND WALES; ANTI‐CATHOLICISM, BRITAINANTI‐CATHOLIC LEGISLATION, IRELAND, 1691 TO 1740s

After Catholic forces were defeated in the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), laws were passed (some violating the treaty of LIMERICK) which denied Catholics political power, minimized their threat to the State, and stifled the Catholic Church. They helped to secure the PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY, i.e., the domination of Ireland by Protestant (Church of Ireland) landed and professional families, which lasted formally until 1800.

Catholics were excluded from the Irish House of Commons by England's Parliament; from Dec. 1691 it required members to repudiate Catholic doctrines and the Pope's claimed power to depose a monarch. (The terms were also applied to public offices.) But qualified Catholics could continue to vote in elections.

From 1695 the Irish Parliament passed anti‐Catholic Acts, known as ‘Popery Laws' or ‘Penal Laws'. The Disarming Act (1695) forbade Catholics to keep weapons or a horse worth more than £5. The Education Act (1695) prohibited Catholics from keeping or teaching in schools. The BANISHMENT ACT (1697) banned bishops and religious orders. The Act to Prevent the Growth of Popery (or ‘Popery Act’, 1704) prohibited Catholics from buying land or from leasing it for more than 31 years. It also imposed partible inheritance (division of land between sons) unless the eldest conformed to the Church of Ireland. An Act of 1709 required Catholic clergy to take an oath of abjuration (denying the Stuart claim to the throne); it was largely ineffective. Catholic peers were excluded from the House of Lords in 1716, and the few remaining Catholic voters lost their franchise in 1729. Later legislation banned Catholic lawyers from practising at the Irish bar (1733) and disallowed ‘mixed marriages' (1745). Land legislation was strictly enforced, other Acts less so.

The last attempt at major legislation took place in 1748 (defeated in Lords). From the 1750s Catholic groups organized campaigns against restrictions. See also CATHOLIC RELIEF AND EMANCIPATION, IRELAND.

ANTI‐CORN LAW LEAGUEA pioneering pressure group founded by businessmen in MANCHESTER, England, in 1839 to agitate for FREE TRADE, particularly repeal of the protective CORN LAWS. Led by Richard COBDEN and John BRIGHT, the League staged mass meetings throughout Great Britain, distributed pamphlets and lobbied MPs. It disbanded after achieving its main objective (1846).ANTI‐VIVISECTIONISMVivisection (experiments on living animals) was criticized in Great Britain from the 18th century. As experiments proliferated, Frances Cobbe (1822–1904) campaigned against vivisection from 1863. In 1875 a royal commission was appointed, and Cobbe founded the Victoria Street Society in London to intensify pressure. The Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876 introduced licensing for vivisection. In 1897 Cobbe’s society was renamed the National Anti‐Vivisection Society; it agreed to accept increased controls on vivisection prior to abolition. Cobbe responded by founding the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection (1898). Both societies continued in the 21st century, along with other anti‐vivisection organizations. See also SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.ANTONINE WALLA Roman defensive wall across the FORTH–CLYDE ISTHMUS in N Britain (modern Scotland). It was built after c.142 at the instigation of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius (138–61), replacing HADRIAN'S WALL as the formal northern limit of ROMAN BRITAIN. It consisted of turf laid on a stone foundation. Punctuated by forts, it was 37 mi (60 km) long. The wall’s history is uncertain: the evidence suggests that it was probably abandoned gradually in favour of Hadrian's Wall in the later 150s or 160s.APPEALS, ACT IN RESTRAINT OFIn England, legislation by the REFORMATION PARLIAMENT, promoted by Thomas CROMWELL, passed in April 1533. It described England as an ‘Empire’, meaning that all jurisdiction depended on the king. It banned appeals to the papal court in Rome concerning matrimony, testaments and tithes, effectively removing England (and Wales) from papal jurisdiction. The Act enabled the first marriage of King HENRY VIII to be annulled without subsequent appeal to the Pope. See also GREAT MATTER; REFORMATION, ENGLAND.APPEASEMENT

The policy of negotiation and concession adopted by the British government towards GERMANY, ITALY and JAPAN in the 1930s. It aimed to prevent war by satisfying grievances within legally binding arrangements. Examples include: the ANGLO‐GERMAN NAVAL AGREEMENT (June 1935), HOARE–LAVAL PACT (Dec. 1935), and Munich Agreement (Sept. 1938; see MUNICH CRISIS). Great Britain also accepted Japanese conquest of Manchuria (1931) and acquiesced in German occupation of the Rhineland (1936), absorption of Austria (13 March 1938), and invasion of CZECHOSLOVAKIA (15 March 1939). Overt appeasement ended with the ANGLO‐POLISH GUARANTEE (31 March 1939).

Appeasers were influenced by popular PACIFISM. Some thought the treaty of VERSAILLES (1919, following WORLD WAR I), too harsh. Others wanted disengagement from Continental Europe. The GREAT DEPRESSION hindered rearmament against the threat from Nazi Germany. Britain also felt uneasy about confronting three potential enemies simultaneously.

Appeasement has been defended for securing necessary ‘extra time’ for rearmament before the outbreak of WORLD WAR II (Sept. 1939). It has also been damned as a shameful attempt to buy peace at others’ expense. Many historians think it was the only realistic strategy for an overstretched power. See also CHAMBERLAIN, NEVILLE; HALIFAX, VISCOUNT; DAWSON, GEOFFREY; CHURCHILL, WINSTON; EDEN ANTHONY.

APPELLANTS

Name given initially to three English MAGNATES – the duke of Gloucester (Thomas of Woodstock), earl of Arundel (Richard FitzAlan), and earl of Warwick (Thomas Beauchamp) – who ‘appealed’ against five favourites of King RICHARD II at a royal Council on 17 Nov. 1387. Later joined by the earl of Derby (Henry Bolingbroke) and earl of Nottingham (Thomas Mowbray), they defeated a royalist army at Radcot Bridge (Oxfordshire) on 20 Dec. and had the favourites convicted for TREASON in the MERCILESS PARLIAMENT (1388).

Richard took revenge from 1397: Gloucester was murdered in CALAIS, Arundel was executed, and Warwick was exiled (Sept.); Bolingbroke and Nottingham were banished (1398). But soon afterwards Bolingbroke overthrew Richard (see HENRY IV).

APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, ENGLAND

Appropriation was the legal transfer of a church’s revenues from its incumbent priest to a religious corporation, usually a monastery which already possessed the church. It was widespread in the 1180s–1230s to combat inflation, but continued until the early 16th century. About a third of livings were appropriated in England.

A portion of a church’s revenues, often ‘small tithes’ on livestock and minor produce, was usually reserved for the incumbent, who was styled ‘vicar’. (Incumbents who retained full revenues were styled ‘rector’.) The appropriator received ‘great tithes’ of grain and hay. After the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (1530s), most appropriated incomes were acquired by laymen, who were known as ‘lay rectors’ or impropriators. See also TITHE; CHURCH, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND.

APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, IRELANDMainly from the 13th century, revenues intended for the clergy of local churches, principally TITHES, were often transferred to monasteries, with a small proportion retained for local clergy (see MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL IRELAND). An estimated 60% of livings were ‘appropriated’ (legally acquired), though proportions varied regionally with the highest in E Ireland. Following the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (16th century), monastic livings were acquired by secular lords, who were known as ‘impropriators’. Some revenues were restored to the Church of IRELAND in the early 17th century (see LAUDIANISM, IMPACT ON IRELAND). See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL IRELAND.APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, SCOTLAND

In the 12th and 13th centuries the endowing of monasteries and cathedral clergy usually included the formal appropriation of rectories (clergy livings), whose revenues (mainly TEINDS) were diverted to the new legal owners. To support clergy, rectories were replaced by vicarages (lower stipends). Vicarages were also appropriated (replaced by small allowances). By c.1300 the revenues of half of Scotland's parishes had been appropriated; more were later appropriated for COLLEGIATE CHURCHES and university colleges (see UNIVERSITIES, SCOTLAND). By 1550, 86% of rectories and 56% of vicarages had been appropriated.

From the late 15th century appropriated incomes increasingly passed temporarily to laymen through the COMMENDATION OF ABBEYS. In 1587 many appropriated revenues were annexed to the Crown by King JAMES VI, who used them to form new secular lordships. See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND.

APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, WALESBetween c.1070 and 1400 Welsh monasteries appropriated the revenues of many parish churches, to which they appointed poorly paid vicars. At the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (1536–9), the revenues passed to the Crown which sold them (mainly 1539–58). Most purchasers were GENTRY who thereby controlled clerical appointments (until 1920), though the percentage of appropriated livings was much smaller than in England. See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL WALES.ARBROATH, DECLARATION OFA letter dated at Arbroath (E Scotland) on 6 April 1320 from 39 Scottish nobles to Pope John XXII, who had put Scotland under an interdict because King ROBERT I had refused a truce with King EDWARD II of England. Famous since the 17th century, it powerfully argues Scotland's case for independence from England. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357.ARCHITECTURE, BRITAIN

Among earlier structures are prehistoric stone monuments (e.g., STONEHENGE, c.2000 BC), BRONZE AGE and IRON AGE settlements, and sites from ROMAN BRITAIN (e.g., HADRIAN’S WALL). In the 7th–11th centuries the Anglo‐Saxons, influenced by Continental architecture, built small plain churches and larger abbeys (e.g., at WINCHESTER). Romanesque architecture, imported by the NORMANS in the late 11th century, brought a new scale and confidence to Church architecture (e.g., DURHAM Cathedral) and in CASTLES. Gothic architecture was introduced from France in the later 12th century: its three main phases in Britain (Early English, Decorated, Perpendicular) were employed in numerous churches, cathedrals and abbeys during the next 350 years (e.g., WESTMINSTER Abbey).

In the 16th century, the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES and REFORMATION severely reduced Church patronage, preventing full assimilation of Italian Renaissance styles, although they influenced the design of grand houses. A true Renaissance architecture arrived in the early 17th century with the Palladianism of Inigo JONES. Baroque style developed after the GREAT FIRE OF LONDON (1666), when Christopher WREN was commissioned to rebuild the capital’s churches, including St Paul’s Cathedral. A restrained Neo‐classicism dominated the 18th century, with the Scottish architect Robert Adam (1728–92) creating distinctive town and country houses.

The restless 19th century was characterized by revivals, the most distinctive being Neo‐Gothic, seen in churches and public buildings (e.g., Houses of Parliament, Westminster). Notable at the end of the century were the Art Nouveau designs in Scotland of Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928).

During the 20th century, British architects responded to international influences. Post‐modern buildings by such architects as Richard Rogers (e.g., Lloyd’s building, London, completed 1986) and Lord Foster (e.g., ‘The Gherkin’, London, 2004) won international acclaim.

ARCHITECTURE, IRELAND

The earliest remains are remarkable NEOLITHIC tombs (e.g., NEWGRANGE, c.3000 BC) and IRON AGE fortifications (e.g., at TARA). From the 6th century Christian monks, at first adapting indigenous styles, built small beehive huts (as on Skellig Michael, Co. Kerry), and later simple oratories, churches, monasteries and (almost unique to Ireland) tall, free‐standing towers (e.g., at GLENDALOUGH).

The 12th century marked a turning point, the Cistercians notably building large monasteries (e.g., Jerpoint Abbey, Co. Kilkenny), and the Gothic style arriving in the wake of the Anglo‐Norman invasion of 1169–70.

In the 16th century the dissolution of monasteries, REFORMATION, and reassertion of English authority greatly reduced religious building. Houses built then and in the 17th century (often fortified) were based on English and Scottish models. In the more settled conditions of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, classical styles appeared (e.g., Beaulieu House, Drogheda, Co. Louth), and Palladianism was introduced from England (e.g., Castletown House, Co. Kildare, built for William CONOLLY). From the mid 18th century, Neo‐Classicism became dominant, resulting in distinctive Georgian areas in many towns and cities, notably DUBLIN where James Gandon (1743–1823) designed prominent buildings (e.g., Custom House).

During the 19th century there was a revival of styles, the most distinctive being Gothic Revival. It was used for both Protestant and Catholic churches, the latter including new cathedrals (e.g., ARMAGH Cathedral, 1854–73). Irish architecture in the 20th century reflected international developments (e.g., the modernist Dublin airport terminal, 1940).

ARCTIC, ENGLISH AND BRITISH EXPLORATION

In the 16th–18th centuries English merchants and others invested in seaborne expeditions into the Arctic area to find a trade route to E Asia, to circumvent Spanish and Portuguese routes. ‘Passages’ were sought mostly to the NW (around N America) and NE (around Eurasia).

Searches to the NW started in the early 16th century (see NORTH‐WEST PASSAGE). Achievements included discovery of the Hudson Strait (by Martin FROBISHER, 1578); exploration of the Davis Strait (by John Davis, 1586, 1587); exploration of the Hudson Strait and discovery of Hudson Bay and James Bay (by Henry HUDSON, 1610); discovery of Baffin Bay (by William Baffin and Robert Bylot, 1616).

Expeditions for the North‐East Passage occurred in 1553 (leading to formation of the MUSCOVY COMPANY), 1556, and 1580. Hudson attempted a transpolar sailing in 1607, and in 1608 sailed to the NE. His discovery of whales in the Greenland Sea (1607) stimulated whaling, which expanded knowledge of conditions.

In the late 18th century the British Admiralty, pursuing scientific ideas, looked for expansive ice‐free sea in the Arctic Ocean. Though this proved illusory, C.J. Phipps achieved a new ‘northing’ (northwards advance) in 1773, and James COOK discovered the Bering Strait between N America and Asia in 1778. In 1806 William Scoresby, with son William, achieved a new northing while whaling; Scoresby junior made important discoveries in geography, currents, etc., in 1813–17 and 1822. New searches for a North‐west Passage between 1818 and the 1840s were eventually successful.

Meanwhile in 1827, Edward Parry sought the North Pole using sledge‐boats. Attempts by various countries from the 1860s included a British expedition (under George Nares, 1875–6). The first undisputed land crossing to the Pole (an American expedition by snowmobile) occurred in 1968. British explorer Wally Herbert (1934–2007) was the first man recognized as reaching the Pole on foot (1969). See also ANTARCTIC, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.

ARGYLL, 2ND DUKE OF

(b. 10 Oct. 1680 at Petersham, Surrey, England; d. 4 Oct. 1743 at Petersham, aged 62). John Campbell succeeded as duke in 1703. In 1705, aged 24, he was appointed QUEEN'S COMMISSIONER in Scotland and obtained agreement from the Scottish Parliament for union negotiations with England and authorization for Queen ANNE to appoint Scotland's commissioners (leading to the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND). In reward, he was granted an English peerage as earl of Greenwich (Nov. 1705).

In 1706–9 Argyll served in the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION. On the accession of GEORGE I (1714), he was appointed commander‐in‐chief in Scotland and the following year suppressed a JACOBITE REBELLION. He was suddenly deprived of his offices in June 1716, but restored to favour in 1719 (created duke of Greenwich, April 1719). In the British Parliament he headed the ‘Argathelian’ party which he put at the disposal of the administration of Robert WALPOLE (1720s–30s). See also HAMILTON, 4TH DUKE OF; ISLAY, EARL OF; PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION, SCOTLAND; PORTEOUS AFFAIR; ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF.

ARGYLL, 8TH EARL OF

(b. March 1607 in Argyll, W Scotland; d. 27 May 1661 at Edinburgh, SE Scotland, aged 54). A member of the Privy COUNCIL from 1626, Archibald Campbell (earl from late 1638) nevertheless subscribed to the NATIONAL COVENANT (1638) and fought for the Covenanters in the Wars of the COVENANT (1639–40). In 1644–5 his forces were attacked by the Royalist earl of MONTROSE. He opposed the ENGAGEMENT with King CHARLES I (Dec. 1647) and was a leader of the radical government of 1648–50.

After the English invasion of 1650, Argyll briefly supported CHARLES II, but during the 1650s complied with Oliver CROMWELL's occupation and helped to suppress the GLENCAIRN RISING (1653–4). He was executed for his complicity after the RESTORATION (1660). See also COVENANTING REVOLUTION; ARGYLL, 9TH EARL OF; ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF.

ARGYLL, 9TH EARL OF

(b. 26 Feb. 1629 at Dalkeith, SE Scotland; d. 30 June 1685 at Edinburgh, SE Scotland, aged 56). Unlike his father the 8th earl of ARGYLL, Archibald Campbell was a Royalist and fought for King CHARLES II against Oliver CROMWELL at DUNBAR (1650), WORCESTER (1651), and during the GLENCAIRN RISING (1653–4). He was imprisoned in 1657, and again after the RESTORATION (1661–3, for criticising Charles's government). On his release he received his father's earldom and lands.

In 1681 Argyll, a strong Protestant, was arrested by the Catholic duke of Albany (the future JAMES VII/II), then KING'S COMMISSIONER in Scotland, and convicted of treason for refusing to acknowledge royal supremacy. He escaped (Dec. 1681) and fled abroad, only to be captured and executed after the ARGYLL RISING. See also CIVIL WARS, SCOTTISH PARTICIPATION; MACKENZIE, GEORGE; ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF.

ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OFThe principal titled family of the Campbell CLAN (originally from STRATHCLYDE; in Argyll, W Scotland, from the 13th century). Colin Campbell (fl. 1431–93) was created earl by King JAMES II (1457 or 1458); his successors (dukes from 1701) were constantly prominent in Scottish and British political life. See also ARGYLL, 8TH EARL OF; ARGYLL, 9TH EARL OF; ARGYLL, 2ND DUKE OF; ISLAY, EARL OF.ARGYLL RISINGA rebellion in Scotland in 1685 against King JAMES VII/II led by Archibald Campbell, (9th) EARL OF ARGYLL, INTENDED TO COINCIDE WITH MONMOUTH'S REBELLION IN ENGLAND. ARGYLL RETURNED FROM THE DUTCH REPUBLIC, TO WHICH HE HAD ESCAPED IN 1682 AFTER BEING CONDEMNED TO DEATH FOR TREASON (FOLLOWING ARREST BY JAMES, THEN DUKE OF ALBANY). Argyll landed in the WESTERN ISLES (mid May), moved to the mainland, but was captured (18 June) and executed (30 June).ARISTOCRACYsee NOBILITYARISTOCRACY OF LABOURTerm coined in 1871 by Russian anarchist theorist Mikhail Bakunin for élite workers, such as printers and ENGINEERING craftsmen. They were considered to exhibit the hallmarks of an aristocracy: higher living standards, collective pride and hereditary recruitment. Skilled workers dominated British TRADE UNIONISM and other working‐class movements (e.g., CHARTISM) from the 1820s until the rise of general unionism in the 1880s.ARKWRIGHT, RICHARD(b. 23 Dec. 1732 at Preston, Lancashire, England; d. 3 Aug. 1792 at Cromford, Derbyshire, England, aged 59). Originally a wig maker, Arkwright in 1767 designed a machine for spinning threads using rollers, the ‘water frame’. It enabled fine, strong thread to be produced, suitable for warps, and could be driven by external power. By 1772 he established a FACTORY at Cromford (on R. Derwent), which spun cotton and silk yarns using water power. Arkwright became England’s largest cotton spinner, with numerous factories and several thousand employees. He was knighted in 1786. See also COTTON INDUSTRY, ENGLAND.ARLINGTON, EARL OF

(b. autumn 1618 in England; d. 28 July 1685 at Westminster, Middlesex, England, aged 66). A Royalist in the CIVIL WARS, Henry Bennet lived in overseas exile 1647–61, variously serving Prince Charles (CHARLES II from 1649) and James, duke of York. As a SECRETARY OF STATE to Charles from 1662 he was a rival of the earl of CLARENDON. He was created Lord Arlington in 1665.

After Clarendon’s fall (1667), Arlington became an influential minister (one of the CABAL group). In foreign affairs, he created a ‘triple alliance’ with the Dutch and Sweden (1668), but negotiated with France after Charles changed policy. He signed the secret treaty of DOVER (1670). In April 1672 he was created an earl, after the start of war against the Dutch.

In 1674 Arlington was impeached for promoting popery, advising war, and self‐aggrandizement. Though successful in defence, he sold his secretaryship (Sept.) and lost influence to the earl of DANBY. He declared himself Catholic on his deathbed. See also ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS; IMPEACHMENT.

ARMADAsee SPANISH ARMADAARMAGH

A city in Northern Ireland, centre of Co. Armagh; from Irish, Árd Macha, meaning ‘Macha’s height’.

Associated with PATRICK (5th century), Armagh was an ecclesiastical centre (monastic and lay settlement) which developed proto‐urban characteristics. From the 7th century its bishops, as successors of Patrick and supported by the UÍ NÉILL, claimed pre‐eminence over Ireland’s churches. Armagh’s monastery had strong scholarly traditions; its scriptorium produced the Book of ARMAGH (807). Its community was dominated by hereditary abbots. Canons replaced the community in the early 12th century.

Armagh became the centre of a territorial diocese and province in 1111, and was granted primatial status in 1152 (at the synod of Kells), though this was subsequently challenged by archbishops of Dublin (see PRIMACY DISPUTE, DUBLIN AND ARMAGH). From 1545 (except 1553–8) there were Church of IRELAND and Catholic primates, and a Catholic cathedral was built 1840–73. Armagh’s city status, removed in 1840, was formally restored in 1994. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL IRELAND; CAPITALS.

Est. popn: 1300, 1000; 1600, 800; 1800, 4000; 1900, 7000; 2000, 14,000.

ARMAGH, BOOK OFA small‐format manuscript book (in Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland). It originated as a copy of the New Testament made in 807 for Abbot Torbach of ARMAGH (N Ireland), but further texts were added, notably the Confession of PATRICK and other Patrick‐related documents. It was later kept as a relic by the coarb (‘heir') of St Patrick and then by the hereditary steward of Armagh (until late 17th century).ARMENIAN MASSACRES (1896)The mass murder of Armenian revolutionaries by Turks in Constantinople (Istanbul), capital of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, Aug. 1896. The massacres provoked protests in Great Britain led by journalist W.T. STEAD and former prime minister W.E. GLADSTONE. Diplomatic efforts by the serving prime minister, Lord SALISBURY, to reform the Ottoman Empire proved ineffectual. Henceforth British public opinion balked at supporting Turkey over the EASTERN QUESTION.ARMINIANISM

A theological movement in the 17th century deriving from the rejection by the Dutch Protestant theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) of Calvinist doctrine on predestination, and his acceptance of man’s free will (see CALVINISM). Calvinists regarded Arminianism as a betrayal of Protestantism.

In England, during the reigns of JAMES VI/I (1603–25) and CHARLES I (1625–49), anti‐Puritans (in the Church of ENGLAND), particularly Archbishop William LAUD and his followers, were often (inaccurately) described by opponents as Arminians. See also MONTAGU, RICHARD; GRAND REMONSTRANCE.

ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM(b. 26 Nov. 1810 at Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, England; d. 27 Dec. 1900 at Cragside, Northumberland, aged 90). A lawyer who was fascinated by machines, Armstrong in 1847 formed a company which manufactured hydraulic devices (lifts, cranes) at Elswick near Newcastle. In the 1850s, he was involved in designing guns and mines (knighted 1859), and in 1859 started his own ordnance factory, also at Elswick. From 1875 Armstrong lived mainly on his country estate at Cragside. His firm merged with a warship builder in 1882, becoming Sir William Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., Ltd; it became one of the world’s largest engineering companies. Armstrong was created Lord Armstrong in 1887. See also ENGINEERING, GREAT BRITAIN.ARMY, ENGLISH AND BRITISH

England’s first regular army was Parliament’s NEW MODEL ARMY (1645). Disbanded by King CHARLES II in 1661–2, it was replaced with a small force of ‘guards and garrisons’ based on ‘regiments’ (9000 troops by 1685). Forces were also established elsewhere (e.g., Ireland, TANGIER). Subsequent expansion (to 35,000 troops, including Catholic officers) contributed to the overthrow of JAMES VII/II (1688). People feared a STANDING ARMY, and saw defence as depending primarily on the NAVY. The requirement for substantial parliamentary funding from the 1690s facilitated civilian control.

Between 1689 and 1815, the Army (British from 1707) participated in six major wars (see FISCAL–MILITARY STATE), each entailing rapid expansion (from around 20,000) and contraction. For example, strength during the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740–8) averaged 62,000. Expansion during the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS (1793–1815) peaked at 250,000 (1813). Domestic roles included defence (e.g., against JACOBITE REBELLIONS) and ‘police’ work (e.g., suppressing riots). Some regiments were stationed overseas.

After 1815, the Army was again reduced, declining to 88,000 in 1838, then re‐expanded, partly for imperial defence; in 1846, two‐thirds of infantry were stationed abroad. Between 1815 and 1899 the Army undertook colonial campaigns. The only major war, the CRIMEAN WAR (1854–6), found the Army wanting. Reforms implemented by Edward CARDWELL (1868–71) introduced short service, abolished purchase of officers’ commissions, and created specific regimental districts. Further reforms after the (Second) BOER WAR (1899–1902) included creation of a general staff (1906).

Unprecedented expansions, involving CONSCRIPTION, were required by WORLD WAR I (1914–18, to 3.5 million in 1918) and WORLD WAR II (1939–45, 3 million in 1945). Imperial commitments shrank with DECOLONIZATION (1947–8, 1957–1960s), but were counterbalanced by the COLD WAR (1947–91) and TROUBLES in Northern Ireland (1969–90s). Army strength of 152,000 in 1990 was reduced to 91,000 by 2014. See also MILITARY SERVICE, ENGLAND FROM 1066 TO MID 17TH CENTURY; ESHER, 2ND VISCOUNT; HALDANE, R.B.; WORLD WAR I, BRITISH ARMY; MILITIAS, ENGLAND AND WALES.

ARMY, ENGLISH AND BRITISH, IN IRELAND, LATE 17TH–18TH CENTURIES

In May 1660 the Parliamentary army of occupation, comprising possibly 11,000 Protestant soldiers, switched allegiance to King CHARLES II. Reduced to 7000 by the mid 1660s and dispersed, it was reorganized into regiments between 1677 and 1683. Kilmainham Hospital (Ireland’s largest civil building, in Co. Dublin) was completed in 1684 for injured and retired soldiers.

From 1686 (under JAMES VII/II), the earl of TYRCONNELL extensively replaced Protestants with Catholics and expanded the Army to 45,000 (so‐called ‘Jacobite Army’). After defeat in the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), 12,000 soldiers left Ireland under the treaty of LIMERICK and the remainder were disbanded.

In 1699 (under WILLIAM III), the English Parliament authorized 12,000 (Protestant) soldiers of the English Army to be stationed in Ireland (increased to 15,000 in 1769), and civil administrative departments were developed. The ‘Irish establishment’ was funded by the Irish Parliament, necessitating biennial meetings to pass supply Acts (see PARLIAMENT, IRELAND). Army units were based in specially built barracks around the country, and sometimes assisted EXCISE and CUSTOMS officers and JUSTICES OF THE PEACE, underpinning the PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY. Catholics were recruited from the 1750s (at first covertly), and the need for recruits encouraged concessions (see CATHOLIC RELIEF AND EMANCIPATION). Military forces (of various kinds) expanded to 76,000 during the French Wars of the 1790s, and were reduced drastically after 1802.

After the UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN (1801), the Irish military establishment was brought under British administration. Up to 30,000 soldiers continued to be stationed in Ireland until 1922. See also IRISH BRIGADES; MILITIAS, IRELAND; CURRAGH ‘MUTINY’.

ARMY, SOUTHERN IRELANDsee DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELANDARMY COMRADES' ASSOCIATIONIn the IRISH FREE STATE, a political‐military organization founded on 9 Feb. 1932, mainly by ex‐members of the National Army, to uphold the State and provide physical support for CUMANN NA N GAEDHAEL. From 24 March 1933, when it adopted a new uniform, the organization's members (about 30,000) were popularly called ‘Blueshirts'. Eoin O'DUFFY became leader in July and it adopted the name ‘National Guard'. It was declared unlawful on 22 Aug., but became part of FINE GAEL (2 Sept.) and was reconstituted as a party section called ‘Young Ireland Association'. See also POLITICAL PARTIES, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922; FASCISM, SOUTHERN IRELAND.ARMY MUTINY, IRELANDAn incident in the IRISH FREE STATE (IFS) when two disaffected officers of the National Army, belonging to a faction called ‘Old IRA', presented demands directly to the Executive Council of the IFS (6 March 1924). They demanded abolition of the (executive) Army Council and suspension of demobilization. Their arrest provoked 50 officers to resign. Though informal concessions were made, many mutineers were arrested (18–19 March), demonstrating that the government possessed authority over agencies of the new State. See also SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922; O'HIGGINS, KEVIN; DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELAND.ARNOLD, THOMAS(b. 13 June 1795 at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, England; d. 12 June 1842 at Rugby, Warwickshire, England, aged 46). Educated at WINCHESTER College (from 1807) and OXFORD University (from 1811), Arnold ran a private school from 1819. In 1828 he was ordained in the Church of ENGLAND and became headmaster of Rugby School. He strengthened discipline through use of prefects (sixth‐formers), and regular examinations and reports to parents, and sought to produce Christian gentlemen of strong moral character. His ideals were spread by colleagues and pupils, thereby helping to revitalize public schools. He also became regius professor of modern history at Oxford in 1841. See also GRAMMAR AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, REFORM OF, ENGLAND AND WALES.ARRAN, EARL OFsee STEWART, JAMESARRAN, 2RD EARL OF

(b. c.1519 at Hamilton, C Scotland; d. 22 Jan. 1575 at Hamilton, aged about 56). James Hamilton succeeded as earl in 1529. In 1542, as closest heir, he was appointed regent for MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. Inclined to Protestantism, Arran allied with King HENRY VIII of England (Aug. 1543), but was soon forced to renege (see BEATON, DAVID), provoking invasions (1544, 1545, 1547). He then co‐operated with the pro‐French policy of Beaton and MARY OF GUISE, receiving the dukedom of Châtelhérault, France (1549), and resigning the regency to Mary in 1554.

From Sept. 1559 Arran supported the pro‐Protestant LORDS OF THE CONGREGATION. In 1565, after refusing a summons to court from Mary, Queen of Scots, Arran was proclaimed a traitor and fled. He returned in 1569, following her abdication (1567), and led the pro‐Mary party in the MARIAN CIVIL WAR until 1573, when he acknowledged JAMES VI. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1357 TO 1603.

ARRAS, CONGRESS OFPeace negotiations, during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, held from 5 Aug. 1435 at St Waast Abbey, Arras, Flanders (a territory of the duke of BURGUNDY), involving English, French and Burgundian delegations. The unwillingness of the English and French to compromise caused stalemate. The English withdrew (6 Sept.). Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, then rejected the English and the treaty of TROYES (1420), and recognized Charles VII as king of France (confirmed 21 Sept.).ARRAY, COMMISSIONS OFIn England and Wales, groups of men appointed to recruit able‐bodied freemen for the king’s army. First used in the late 13th century by King EDWARD I, their use declined during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR (1337–1453), but they continued until the mid 16th century when LORD LIEUTENANTS became responsible for recruitment. Commissions were reintroduced by CHARLES I in 1640 (for war against Scotland) and in May 1642 (declared unlawful by Parliament). See also MILITARY SERVICE, ENGLAND 1066 TO MID 17TH CENTURY.ARTHUR (possibly fl. late 5th century in Britain). A Briton first mentioned in the 7th‐century Welsh poem Y Gododdin (see ANEIRIN). He was celebrated in the 9th‐century Historia Brittonum as a commander who defeated SAXONS 12 times (see NENNIUS). From the 12th century King Arthur was a major figure in European literature. He probably never existed. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN.ARTHUR, PRINCE OF WALES(b. 19 Sept. 1486 at Winchester, Hampshire, England; d. 2 April 1502 at Ludlow, Shropshire, England, aged 15). Eldest son and heir of King HENRY VII, Arthur was created PRINCE OF WALES on 29 Nov. 1489. He was married to KATHERINE OF ARAGON (14 Nov. 1501), under the treaty of MEDINA DEL CAMPO, but died possibly before consummating the marriage (the matter was disputed). He was succeeded as heir by his brother Henry who married Katherine (see HENRY VIII). See also COUNCIL IN THE MARCHES OF WALES.ARTHUR OF BRITTANY(b. 29 March 1187 at Nantes, Brittany; d. allegedly 3 April 1203 at Rouen, Normandy, aged 16). The posthumous son of Geoffrey, duke of Brittany (fourth son of King HENRY II), Arthur was a threat to JOHN (fifth son). In 1199 he and supporters attempted, unsuccessfully, to control parts of the ANGEVIN EMPIRE. Although John recognized Arthur's position in Brittany (1200), he was captured (Aug. 1202) by forces loyal to John and disappeared. He was allegedly murdered by John himself.ARTICLES OF RELIGION

List‐like statements of religious doctrine issued by national churches in the 16th and 17th centuries to resolve questions of doctrine and ceremonial.

After the English Church left papal jurisdiction (confirmed 1534), traditional doctrine was largely reaffirmed in the TEN ARTICLES (1536) and SIX ARTICLES (1539). But a reformed theology was asserted by Thomas CRANMER in the Forty‐Two Articles of 1553 (e.g., justification by faith), and some Catholic doctrines were condemned (e.g., TRANSUBSTANTIATION). The Articles were mostly reissued in 1563, following the ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT, as the Thirty‐nine Articles, which remained a document of belief in Anglican churches.

A less precise statement was issued for the Church of IRELAND in 1567 in the Twelve Articles, which were expanded, under the influence of CALVINISM, into 104 Articles (1615). In 1634 the Church was forced to adopt the English Thirty‐nine Articles (see LAUDIANISM, IMPACT ON IRELAND). The Church of SCOTLAND adopted articles influenced by Calvinism in the SCOTS CONFESSION of 1560. See also ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; TEST AND CORPORATION ACTS.

ARTIFICERS, STATUTE OFLegislation by the English Parliament, 1563, which sought economic and social stability through regulation. It specified a minimum term of seven years for apprenticeships, and one year as the minimum employment period in many occupations. It required JUSTICES OF THE PEACE to set maximum wage rates annually according to prevailing conditions. Many requirements were abandoned in the 18th century and repealed in 1813–14. See also ECONOMY, STATE INVOLVEMENT, BRITAIN.ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENTA movement mainly in the decorative arts which flourished in England in the 1880s–90s in reaction to mass‐produced objects and formal design. Influenced by William MORRIS and John RUSKIN, it valued natural and local materials, craft techniques and informal designs, and was promoted by various groups and individuals, including C.R. Ashbee, founder of the Guild of Handicraft (1888). The movement produced architecture, furniture, textiles, wallpaper, metalwork, paintings and gardens. It was influential in Continental Europe and the USA. See also VISUAL ARTS, BRITAIN.ARUNDEL, THOMAS

(b. mid 1353 in England; d. 19 Feb. 1414 at Canterbury, Kent, England, aged 60). Arundel, an earl’s son, served as bishop of Ely from 1373, archbishop of YORK from 1388, and as CHANCELLOR 1386–9, 1391–6. He was appointed archbishop of CANTERBURY in 1396. In 1397 Arundel was condemned as a traitor for sympathizing with the APPELLANTS against King RICHARD II in 1386–8. He was nominally demoted to bishop of St Andrews and exiled.

Arundel eventually joined Henry Bolingbroke in Paris (France), and they landed in England in July 1399. Arundel supported Richard’s enforced abdication (Sept.) and Henry’s seizure of the throne (see HENRY IV). He was reinstated as archbishop of Canterbury. In 1407 he was reappointed chancellor, but was dismissed in 1409 under pressure from Prince Henry. Though reinstated in 1412, he was removed after Henry succeeded as king (see HENRY V). From the mid 1390s Arundel combated LOLLARDY and defended the Church against demands for disendowment. See also BEAUFORT, HENRY.

ASCENDANCY, IRELANDsee PROTESTANT ASCENDANCYASIENTO (1713–50)see UTRECHT, PEACE OF; AIX‐LA‐CHAPELLE, TREATY OFASQUITH, H.H.

(b. 12 Sept. 1852 at Morley, Yorkshire, England; d. 15 Feb. 1928 at Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire, England, aged 75). Leader of the LIBERAL PARTY 1908–26, British prime minister 1908–16.

A lawyer, Herbert Henry Asquith was a Liberal MP from 1886 who won respect as home secretary (1892–5). A Liberal imperialist, he served Henry CAMPBELL‐BANNERMAN as chancellor of the Exchequer 1905–8, introducing differential TAX rates for earned and unearned income (1907) and PENSIONS (implemented 1909).

As prime minister from April 1908, Asquith oversaw reforms. His talented cabinet included David LLOYD GEORGE, Winston CHURCHILL, John MORLEY, and Sir Edward GREY. The crisis over the PEOPLE'S BUDGET (1909–10) ended in a qualified success, but Irish HOME RULE approached disaster.

Asquith led Great Britain and Ireland into WORLD WAR I (1914), but criticism forced him to create a coalition government (May 1915). His leadership appeared lethargic in disputes over strategy and CONSCRIPTION. Faced with demands for a war committee (excluding himself), he resigned and entered Opposition (5 Dec. 1916). When Lloyd George became prime minister, Liberals were divided. Asquith lost his seat in Dec. 1918. He returned as MP 1920–4, but antipathy to Lloyd George prevented Liberal reunion. He was created earl of Oxford and Asquith (1925).

ASSEMBLIES, NORTHERN IRELAND

During the TROUBLES, the province’s PARLIAMENT was succeeded by Assemblies elected by proportional representation to facilitate better representation of a disparate society and encourage coalition government. The first Assembly (with legislative power), elected in June 1973, was suspended on 29 May 1974 after its EXECUTIVE collapsed. (‘Direct rule’ from WESTMINSTER was reimposed.) A Constitutional Convention was elected in 1975 to negotiate power‐sharing arrangements. Dominated by Unionists who preferred majority (Unionist) rule, it was dissolved in 1976. A consultative Assembly, to advise the secretary of state for Northern Ireland, existed 1982–6.

In June 2008 an Assembly with 108 members and legislative power was elected under the BELFAST AGREEMENT. Although suspended in 2000, 2001 (briefly) and 2002–7, when direct rule was again imposed, it proved a more successful institution. It was suspended again in Jan. 2017 when the power‐sharing Executive collapsed, and was reinstated in 2020. See also PEACE PROCESS, NORTHERN IRELAND.

ASSER(fl. from 870s; d. 909). A Welsh monk and priest, Asser was educated at ST DAVIDS in DYFED (SW Wales). From probably 885, he spent periods at the court of King ALFRED of WESSEX (S England). Alfred presented him with MINSTERS and made him bishop of Sherborne (in modern Dorset). In 893, Asser composed (in Latin) a Life of Alfred, King of the Anglo‐Saxons to present a favourable portrait to Welsh kings. See also ANGLO‐SAXONS.ASSIZE

Term meaning ‘sitting’ (from OFr. asise), used in England for several aspects of law: (a) laws and orders issued by the king and COUNCIL (mid 12th–mid 13th centuries), e.g., the Assize of CLARENDON; (b) procedures established by laws and orders (e.g., the POSSESSORY ASSIZES); (c) courts or bodies involved in implementing laws and orders (e.g., juries of assize); (d) some trials.

From c.1370 until 1972, assize courts (so‐called ‘assizes’), derived from commissions for possessory assizes and goal delivery (clearing), were the senior local courts. Presided over by itinerant justices of assize, they were usually held twice‐yearly in major towns (arranged on ‘circuits’) for serious criminal matters and civil cases. Similar courts were also held in Ireland and later in Wales. See also COMMON LAW; COURTS, ENGLAND BEFORE 1660; COURTS, IRELAND; COURTS, WALES.

ASTELL, MARY(b. 12 Nov. 1666 at Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, England; d. 9 May 1731 at Chelsea, Middlesex, England; aged 64). A coal merchant’s daughter and TORY, Astell moved to London in the late 1680s and later settled at Chelsea. She established a reputation with A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1694), which advocated an educational academy for women. She also contributed to theological and social debates (e.g., Letters Concerning the Love of God, 1695, with John Norris; Some Reflections Upon Marriage, 1700).ASTOR, NANCY(b. 19 May 1879 at Danville, Virginia, USA; d. 2 May 1964 at Grimsthorpe Castle, Lincolnshire, England, aged 84). The first woman to sit in the UK House of Commons. She replaced her husband, William Waldorf Astor, as MP for Plymouth (SW England), through a by‐election (28 Nov. 1919) after he succeeded to a viscountcy. A Conservative, she represented her constituency until 1945. She campaigned for TEMPERANCE, moral reform and family issues (e.g., provision of nursery schools). In the late 1930s her circle, the ‘Cliveden set’ (named after the Astors’ country house in Buckinghamshire), strongly supported APPEASEMENT. See also MARKIEVICZ, COUNTESS; PARLIAMENT, UNITED KINGDOM 1801 TO 1921.ATHELSTAN

(b. 893 or 894 in Wessex; d. 27 Oct. 939 at Gloucester, Gloucestershire, England, aged 45 or 46). The eldest son of EDWARD THE ELDER, king of the ANGLO‐SAXONS, Athelstan was raised in MERCIA (W Midlands) by his aunt ÆTHELFLÆD. On Edward's death (17 July 924) Athelstan succeeded immediately in Mercia, but his accession in Wessex (S England) was delayed by the 16‐day rule of his half‐brother Ælfweard.

In 927, after the death of King Sihtric, Athelstan seized the kingdom of YORK and effectively annexed NORTHUMBRIA (former BERNICIA), giving England a border with Scotland. Kings from N Britain and Wales acknowledged Athelstan's overlordship. He claimed to be king ‘of the whole of Britain'. In 934 Athelstan invaded Scotland. Subsequently, in 937, England was invaded by Scots, Dublin Vikings and allies, but Athelstan defeated them at BRUNANBURH.

Athelstan held large councils, issued law codes, made gifts to monasteries, and collected relics. He developed extensive relations in Continental Europe. Succeeded by EDMUND. See also ENGLAND, FORMATION OF; ENGLISH; BORDER, ANGLO‐SCOTTISH; TITHE.

ATHELSTAN ‘HALF‐KING'

(born by c.915; d. after 957, probably at Glastonbury, Somerset, England). A member of the royal kindred of WESSEX (S England), Athelstan was appointed EALDORMAN (governor) of East Anglia by King ATHELSTAN (932). He was influential during the reigns of EDMUND (939–46) and EADRED (946–55), and was given authority additionally in eastern and C Mercia (949, 951), making him responsible for English rule in former Danish‐ruled territory.

Athelstan resigned after King EADWIG exiled DUNSTAN, and retired to Glastonbury Abbey (956 or 957). His father, three brothers and two sons were also ealdormen, the last in East Anglia (958–92). See also ENGLAND, FORMATION OF.

ATHOLL, KINGDOM OFA Pictish kingdom in highland (modern) E Scotland (N of R. Tay, within modern Perth and Kinross county). It was mentioned in 739 when its king Talorcan was drowned by ONUIST SON OF VURGUIST, king of FORTRIU. Its name (Gaelic, Athfotla, meaning ‘New Ireland') may indicate immigration by SCOTS (Irish). Atholl may have been the centre of a Pictish kingship S of the MOUNTH, and have become subordinate to Fortriu from the later 7th century. By 966, much of Atholl was ruled by a regional governor (see MORMAER). See also PICTS; KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.ATLANTIC, BATTLE OF THEA war of attrition in the Atlantic Ocean between British and Allied ships, and German vessels (mostly submarines) 1939–45; part of WORLD WAR II. It was mainly an Allied struggle to protect eastbound merchant ships from submarine attacks. Shipping losses were most severe between March 1941 and April 1943. The name was coined by Winston CHURCHILL on 6 March 1941.ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS

The atomic bomb, of huge destructive force, was developed during WORLD WAR II as a UK–American joint project (based on the Quebec Agreement, Aug. 1943). Bombs were deployed against Japan, destroying the cities of Hiroshima (6 Aug. 1945) and Nagasaki (9 Aug.). But in Aug. 1946 the USA ended co‐operation with the UK. Prime Minister Clement ATTLEE resolved (1947) to create an independent nuclear deterrent.

The UK built an atomic bomb (1952) and hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb (1957), but fell behind in missile technology, though other delivery methods were employed (e.g., aircraft; see ROYAL AIR FORCE). It arranged to buy US ‘Skybolt’ missiles (1960), but the Americans cancelled the project (1962).

In Dec. 1962 Harold MACMILLAN secured the US submarine‐launched ‘Polaris’ missile system to carry British warheads on British‐built Resolution‐class submarines (operational 1968–1996). From 1949 the US Air Force kept atomic bombs at its British bases, their use requiring British approval. In 1980, the government of Margaret THATCHER accepted 160 US ‘Cruise’ missiles on these terms (operational 1983–91), and ordered US ‘Trident’ missiles to replace Polaris.

The Trident system, based on four Vanguard‐class submarines, was introduced from 1994, and other types of nuclear weapons used by British forces (e.g., free‐fall bombs) were withdrawn (completed 1998), leaving Trident as the sole system. In 2006 the Labour government of Tony BLAIR decided to replace the submarines, but in 2010 the coalition government of David CAMERON postponed a final decision about manufacture. Following the Conservative election victory in 2015, the House of Commons voted in 2016 to renew the Trident system, and soon afterwards construction of the first new Dreadnought‐class submarine began. See also CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT.

ATREBATESsee BELGAEATTAINDERForfeiture of estates and titles imposed for felony or TREASON (from OFr. ataindre, meaning ‘to condemn’). In England from 1459, individuals were attainted by PARLIAMENT using a Bill of attainder, a non‐judicial conviction which declared the victim’s blood to be corrupted and disinherited his heirs. Victims were usually executed. Many noblemen were attainted during the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT and in the 16th century. Later victims included the earl of Strafford (Thomas WENTWORTH, 1641) and William LAUD (1644). The last victim was Lord Edward FITZGERALD (attainted posthumously by Irish Parliament, 1798).ATTERBURY, FRANCIS

(b. 6 March 1663 at Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England; d. 22 Feb. 1732 at Paris, France, aged 68). A Church of ENGLAND clergyman, Atterbury became prominent as a HIGH CHURCH and TORY preacher in London in the 1690s. In 1710 he assisted Dr Henry SACHEVERELL with his defence. He was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1711. In 1713, thanks to patronage from Viscount BOLINGBROKE, he became bishop of Rochester (1713).

Atterbury accepted the accession of King GEORGE I (1714), despite his preference for the ‘Old Pretender’ (Stuart claimant). George refused to favour him and Atterbury was enticed into Jacobite conspiracies. Arrested in Aug. 1722, he was deprived of his bishopric and exiled (1723). He served the Pretender 1725–8. See also JACOBITISM, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.

ATTLEE, CLEMENT

(b. 3 Jan. 1883 at Putney, Surrey, England; d. 8 Oct. 1967 at London, England, aged 84). Leader of the LABOUR PARTY 1935–55; British prime minister 1945–51.

Attlee became a barrister, taught at the London School of Economics, undertook social work in E London, and during WORLD WAR I rose to major. After serving as mayor of Stepney (1919–20), he became an MP (1922) and held junior office (1930–1). Taciturn by nature, he seemed an uninspiring choice as Party leader in Nov. 1935, but he skilfully consolidated his authority.

After Labour entered coalition government during WORLD WAR II (May 1940), Attlee was lord PRIVY SEAL, dominions secretary (1942–3), and lord president of the Council (1943–5), as well as deputy prime minister (1942–5).

As head of the first majority Labour government from July 1945, Attlee presided over NATIONALIZATION, INDIAN INDEPENDENCE and creation of the WELFARE STATE. His Cabinet included such strong personalities as Ernest BEVIN, Herbert MORRISON, Hugh DALTON, Stafford CRIPPS and Nye BEVAN. The 1950 election almost eliminated his majority and splits emerged over rearmament and NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE charges. After losing the 1951 election, Attlee gave priority to Party unity. He retired in 1955 and was created Earl Attlee.

ATTWOOD, THOMAS(b. 6 Oct. 1783 at Halesowen, Worcestershire, England; d. 6 March 1856 at Great Malvern, Worcestershire, aged 72). A banker’s son, Attwood founded the Birmingham Political Union in Jan. 1830 and orchestrated agitation in Britain for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM. He welcomed the Reform Act of 1832, but later endorsed CHARTISM. As an MP (1832–9), he repeatedly advocated paper money (see CURRENCY SCHOOL).AUDEN, W.H.(b. 21 Feb. 1907 at York, Yorkshire, England; d. 29 Sept. 1973 at Vienna, Austria, aged 66). A doctor’s son, educated at OXFORD University (1925–8), and schoolmaster (1930–5), Wystan Hugh Auden became a prolific writer. His early works, expressing an anti‐fascist outlook, reflected concerns of the 1930s. They included the poem Spain (1937), based on brief participation in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. After moving to the USA in Jan. 1939, Auden published overtly Christian work and co‐wrote the libretto for Igor Stravinksy’s opera The Rake’s Progress (1951). He returned to Oxford as professor of poetry (1956–61). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE, ENGLAND.AUGHRIM, BATTLE OFThe final major battle of the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), fought at Aughrim Hill in Co. Galway (W Ireland) on 12 July 1691. Protestant forces supporting King WILLIAM III (‘Williamites'), commanded by Baron van Ginkel (a Dutchman), defeated mainly Catholic forces supporting (the former king) JAMES VII/II (‘Jacobites'), commanded by the marquis of St‐Ruth (a Frenchman). Ginkel's victory led to the surrender of Jacobite forces. See also LIMERICK, TREATY OF.AUGUSTINE

(fl. from 596; d. 26 May between 604 and 609). A monk in Rome, Augustine was chosen by Pope Gregory the Great (596) to lead a Christian mission to the Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms. In 597, he and companions landed in KENT (SE England), where King ÆTHELBERT permitted them to preach. Soon afterwards Augustine was consecrated bishop (in Francia).

In 601 Gregory appointed Augustine as archbishop (effectively first archbishop of CANTERBURY) and instructed him to consecrate 12 bishops for southern England and one for YORK. (Only two consecrations happened.) Augustine sought co‐operation with British bishops, meeting them twice (near R. Severn) and asking them to adopt certain Roman customs. They refused. See also CONVERSION OF ANGLO‐SAXONS.

AULD ALLIANCEsee SCOTTISH–FRENCH ALLIANCEAUSTEN, JANE(b. 16 Dec. 1775 at Steventon, Hampshire, England; d. 18 July 1817 at Winchester, Hampshire, aged 41). A clergyman’s daughter who lived mainly in rural England, Austen began writing in 1787. She wrote six major novels, generally considered literary masterpieces. Four were published anonymously in her lifetime (from 1811), the others posthumously. They portray, in a gently comic way, the world of minor GENTRY (including single women and professional men), exploring restrictions and opportunities within their social stratum. See also ENGLISH LITERATURE, ENGLAND.AUSTRALIA

A former British DOMINION in the SW Pacific. James COOK annexed Australia’s E coast for Great Britain in 1770, naming it NEW SOUTH WALES. It became a colony in 1788, initially for transported convicts (see TRANSPORTATION), and included eastern and C Australia.

Some convicts chose to remain, settlement spread, and free settlers arrived in significant numbers from the 1830s. Pastoral farming became prominent. Parts of New South Wales were demarcated as separate colonies: VAN DIEMEN’S LAND (1825), SOUTH AUSTRALIA (1842), VICTORIA (1851), and QUEENSLAND (1859). Other areas were also developed: NORTHERN TERRITORY from 1824, WESTERN AUSTRALIA from 1826 (colony from 1829). After 1850 colonies established RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT, although aborigines did not secure full citizenship rights until 1967. The mid 19th century witnessed exploration of the interior, while gold rushes from 1851 stimulated immigration and economic growth. AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION in 1901 united six colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia (capital at Canberra from 1913).

A ‘White Australia Policy' determined immigration controls 1902–74. During WORLD WAR I (1914–18), 300,000 Australians fought in Europe as volunteers, notably at GALLIPOLI. Approx. population in 1921: 5,436,000. The Statute of WESTMINSTER (1931) confirmed Australia’s equality with Britain within the Empire. During WORLD WAR II (1939–45) Australia sent troops to Europe, N Africa, Malaya, and New Guinea. Japan bombed Northern Territory and Western Australia. An appeal to the USA for military assistance (Dec. 1941) marked a shift away from an exclusive Anglo‐Australian relationship.

In the later 20th century, the expansion of Australian industry and British membership of the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY redirected trade towards E Asia. The 1986 Australia Act of the UK Parliament removed the vestiges of British legal authority, though the British monarch remained sovereign. See also MENZIES, ROBERT.

AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION

The process in the later 19th century whereby Great Britain’s six Australian colonies (NEW SOUTH WALES, VICTORIA, QUEENSLAND, TASMANIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA) united to create the Commonwealth of AUSTRALIA, a DOMINION within the British Empire. The move reflected growing Australian patriotism, concern to control defence and immigration, and desire for continental free trade. Victoria was keen but New South Wales was wary.

Conventions in Australia in 1891 and 1897–8 negotiated a federal constitution which was approved in referendums, except that NEW ZEALAND decided against joining. The Commonwealth was established by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act passed by the UK Parliament in 1900, and instituted on 1 Jan. 1901. The colonies became states, and the Commonwealth was provided with a governor‐general, bicameral Parliament, government and High Court. See also DEAKIN, ALFRED; NORTHERN TERRITORY.

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE

A complex European war, 1740–8, when countries sought to partition the Austrian HABSBURG EMPIRE following the accession of Empress Maria Theresa. Great Britain was concerned to counter the power of France (an imperial and naval rival) and of Spain.

Britain was already at war with Spain (see JENKINS’ EAR, WAR OF). It now subsidized the empress’s forces, organized an allied army against France in the Austrian Netherlands, and challenged Franco‐Spanish naval activity. On 16 June 1743 an allied army (British, Austrian, Dutch and some German troops), led by King GEORGE II, defeated the French at Dettingen in Germany. But in 1745 allied forces were defeated by the French (30 April) at Fontenoy (in Austrian Netherlands), and British forces were withdrawn to confront the JACOBITE REBELLION.

British naval forces were successful against the French in 1747: off Cape Finisterre, Spain (3 May), and off Belle Île, France (Oct.). The war was ended by the treaty of AIX‐LA‐CHAPELLE. See also CARTERET, LORD; NEWCASTLE, DUKE OF; HARRINGTON, EARL OF; DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION.

AUTARKYTerm meaning ‘self‐sufficiency’, often applied to self‐contained national economies. It was used to characterize the economic policy of southern Ireland 1932–late 1950s. Pioneered by the FIANNA FÁIL government of Éamon DE VALERA, it included the imposition of tariffs and import quotas, and legislation to preserve Irish ownership of industry (1932, 1934). See also SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922.AVEBURYA monument complex of the Late NEOLITHIC (i.e., c. 2800 BC) at the head of the Kennet Valley in Wiltshire, S England. It comprises a massive HENGE enclosure with internal stone arrangements, and avenues that link the monument to others such as the Sanctuary. Nearby are contemporaneous monuments such as SILBURY HILL and older sites such as West Kennet LONG BARROW and Windmill Hill CAUSEWAYED ENCLOSURE. The scale of the complex suggests use for periodic social gatherings, rites of passage and important political events.AXE INDUSTRY, PREHISTORIC BRITAINThe making of ground and polished axes of flint and stone was an important activity during the NEOLITHIC (c.4300– c.2300 BC). Made at flint mines and highland stone sources, these practical tools also circulated between communities as tokens of identity and value.AXE INDUSTRY, PREHISTORIC IRELANDA range of stone and rock sources were used to make axeheads in NEOLITHIC Ireland (i.e., c.3800– c.2500 BC). Porcellanite was the single most important source. Two known porcellanite axe quarry sites are at Tievebulliagh and Brockley on Rathlin Island, both in Co. Antrim (NE Ireland).