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BABBAGE, CHARLESsee COMPUTINGBACON, ANTHONY(b. 1718, probably at London, England; d. 21 Jan. 1786 at Cyfarthfa, Glamorgan, Wales, aged 67). The leading industrialist in the development of MERTHYR TYDFIL (S Wales) as the world's greatest iron‐working town; he founded the Cyfarthfa ironworks there in 1765. Bacon made a fortune from supplying munitions to the British government during the AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775–81). See also CRAWSHAY FAMILY; IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES, WALES.BACON, FRANCIS

(b. 22 Jan. 1561 at London, England; d. 9 April 1626 at Highgate, Middlesex, England, aged 65). A royal minister’s son, Bacon became a barrister and (1584) MP. Distrusted by Queen ELIZABETH I and her chief minister Lord Burghley (William CECIL), Bacon joined the supporters of the 2nd earl of ESSEX (1591), but abandoned him before Essex rebelled (1601).

Knighted by JAMES VI/I (1603), Bacon held royal offices from 1607. After the fall of Edward COKE, he was appointed (1618) lord CHANCELLOR (also created Lord Verulam, Viscount St Albans from 1621). But he was impeached by Parliament for accepting bribes, and dismissed by James (1621).

Bacon was also an influential philosopher. His Novum Organum (1620) argued that the material world should be understood through experimental investigation rather than ancient knowledge and logic, an approach fundamental to the SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION.

BADEN‐POWELL, ROBERT

(b. 22 Feb. 1857 at Paddington, Middlesex, England; d. 18 Jan. 1941 at Nyeri, Kenya, aged 83). A soldier from 1876, Baden‐Powell wrote training manuals, books and articles. His leadership at MAFEKING (1899–1900, during Second Boer War) made him a hero in Great Britain.

Influenced by concerns about NATIONAL DETERIORATION, Baden‐Powell realized that military training methods could be adapted for boys. In 1907 he drafted a manual and experimented with a camp on Brownsea Island (Dorset). The manual, published in 1908 as Scouting for Boys, stimulated the formation of scouting groups, and launch of the Boy Scouts organization by Baden‐Powell (1908). After retiring from the Army (1910), he continued to promote scouting. Baden‐Powell was knighted (1909), and created a baronet (1922) and Lord Baden‐Powell (1929). See also YOUTH ORGANIZATIONS.

BAGEHOT, WALTER(b. 3 Feb. 1826 at Langport, Somerset, England; d. 24 March 1877 at Curry Rivel, Somerset, aged 51). Educated at University College, London, Bagehot worked in his family’s bank (1852–61), in Langport and BRISTOL, while also publishing articles on current affairs. In 1852 he co‐founded the National Review. A contributor to The Economist from 1857, he was editor from 1861 (resident in London). He is best known for The English Constitution (1867). It notably distinguished between the ‘dignified’ part of the constitution (primarily the monarchy), which created legitimacy for government by attracting popular support, and the ‘efficient’ part (House of Commons, executive), which exercised authority. See also CONSTITUTION, UNITED KINGDOM.BAIRD, JOHN LOGIE

(b. 13 Aug. 1888 at Helensburgh, Dunbartonshire, Scotland; d. 14 June 1946 at Bexhill‐on‐Sea, East Sussex, England, aged 57). After studying electrical engineering at the Royal Technical College, GLASGOW, and attending the university (1914–15), Baird was involved in various ventures. In 1922, while recuperating from illness at Hastings (SE England), he began development of a partly mechanical system for the transmission and reception of visual signals. On 1 Jan. 1926 he gave the first recognized demonstration of television (at the ROYAL INSTITUTION, London). Afterwards he filed patents and formed companies to exploit his inventions.

The BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION used Baird systems for television in 1929 (experimental broadcast) and 1932–5 (the world’s first service). From 1936, a Baird system was used alongside an all‐electronic system, which was preferred from 1937. Baird continued to develop television systems, and demonstrated colour television (1938). See also TELEVISION, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND.

BALANCED CONSTITUTIONAn idealized characterization of the English constitution which was developed during the early stages of the First CIVIL WAR (from 1642). The constitution was viewed as a balance of the king’s rights and prerogatives and the people’s liberties and property, with king and Parliament sharing sovereign power. Later commentators saw this as disrupted by CHARLES I and JAMES VII/II, restored by the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (17th century), and subverted by GEORGE III (late 18th century). In practice, royal powers declined from the late 17th century. See also ANCIENT CONSTITUTION.BALANCE OF POWERAn international system in which power is so distributed among states (or alliances) that no one state (or alliance) is predominant and peace is maintained. In the 16th–20th centuries English/British foreign policy in Europe generally sought to preserve such a situation. See also FOREIGN RELATIONS, ENGLAND 16TH CENTURY TO 1707; FOREIGN RELATIONS, GREAT BRITAIN.BALDWIN, STANLEY

(b. 3 Aug. 1867 at Bewdley, Worcestershire, England; d. 14 Dec. 1947 at Astley, Lancashire, England, aged 80). Leader of the British CONSERVATIVE PARTY 1923–37; prime minister (1923–4, 1924–9, 1935–7).

Baldwin succeeded his father as MP for Bewdley in 1908 and held junior posts at the Treasury (1917–21) before becoming president of the Board of Trade. Hostile towards the Liberal prime minister David LLOYD GEORGE, he condemned the coalition government at the CARLTON CLUB MEETING (Oct. 1922).

Chancellor of the Exchequer from Oct. 1922 to May 1923, Baldwin then succeeded Bonar LAW as prime minister. His decision to fight an election on TARIFF REFORM (Dec. 1923) dismayed many Conservatives, as did tolerance of a Labour government (from Jan. 1924), but electoral victory in Oct. redeemed him. He ran his CABINET on a loose rein and, despite the GENERAL STRIKE (1926), acquired a reputation for moderation. This was insufficient to secure re‐election in May 1929, but he repelled attacks on his leadership before taking the Conservatives into the NATIONAL GOVERNMENT (1931).

Baldwin was lord president of the Council 1931–5. During his final premiership, he handled the ABDICATION CRISIS (1936). Succeeded by Neville CHAMBERLAIN, Baldwin was later accused of complacency about defence. See also MAC DONALD, RAMSAY.

BALE, JOHN

(b. 21 Nov. 1495 at Cove, Suffolk, England; d. Nov. 1563 at Canterbury, Kent, England, aged 67 or 68). A friar, Bale left his order in 1536 and became a secular priest. He married, and promoted religious reform by satirizing the Western Church in polemical plays. Deprived of protection by the fall of Thomas CROMWELL, Bale lived in Continental Europe 1540–8.

In early 1553 Bale was sent to Ireland by Edward VI as bishop of OSSORY. Based at KILKENNY, he sought to introduce the 1552 Protestant PRAYER BOOK but met resistance from clergy. After the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary I, he fled to Continental Europe (late 1553), returning to England after the accession of Elizabeth I. See also REFORMATION, IRELAND.

BALFOUR, A.J.

(b. 25 July 1848 at Whittingehame, East Lothian, Scotland; d. 19 March 1930 at Woking, Surrey, England, aged 81). British prime minister 1902–5; leader of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY 1902–11.

Balfour’s career was advanced by his uncle Lord SALISBURY, who helped him into Parliament (1874) and as prime minister appointed him president of the Local Government Board (1885–6) and Scottish secretary (1886–7). Balfour made his reputation as Irish secretary (1887–91). He led the Conservatives in the House of Commons 1891–2, 1895–1902 (entitled first lord of the Treasury), and sponsored the BALFOUR EDUCATION ACT (1902).

As prime minister, Balfour established the Committee of Imperial Defence (1904) and oversaw the ANGLO‐FRENCH CONVENTION (1904). But TARIFF REFORM, advocated by Joseph CHAMBERLAIN, proved divisive. Eventually, Balfour resigned (Dec. 1905), allowing the Liberals into government (see CAMPBELL‐BANNERMAN, HENRY). In Jan. 1906 the Conservatives suffered electoral defeat. Balfour quit as leader after two more lost elections.

Balfour returned to government in coalitions: as first lord of the Admiralty (1915–16) and foreign secretary (1916–19). He signed the BALFOUR DECLARATION (1917) and attended the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE (1919). He ended his career as lord president of the Council (1919–22, 1925–9), becoming earl of Balfour (1922). See also BALFOUR, A.J., AND IRELAND; BALFOUR DEFINITION.

BALFOUR, A.J., AND IRELAND

Balfour was (Conservative) CHIEF SECRETARY FOR IRELAND March 1887–Nov. 1891, during the anti‐landlord PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. He responded uncompromisingly, obtaining extra powers with the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act (July 1887). After police fired on demonstrators in the ‘Mitchelstown Massacre' (Co. Cork, 9 Sept. 1887), Balfour was dubbed ‘Bloody Balfour'.

Balfour attempted to diminish popular support for Home Rule by promoting land reform and economic development. Measures included the Land Law (Ireland) Act of 1887, Light Railways (Ireland) Act of 1889 and Purchase of Land (Ireland) Act of 1891. The last created the CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD. The 1903 Land Act was passed during his premiership. See also HOME RULE MOVEMENT, IRELAND; LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND; TRANSPORT COMMUNICATIONS, IRELAND.

BALFOUR DECLARATIONA statement of support for the creation of a ‘national home’ for Jews in PALESTINE made on 2 Nov. 1917 by the British foreign secretary, A.J. BALFOUR, in a letter to Lord Rothschild as a Zionist representative. It also required the safeguarding of non‐Jewish communities. Its purpose was to secure international Jewish support for the Allies in WORLD WAR I. The declaration was implemented when the LEAGUE OF NATIONS made Palestine a British MANDATE (1920), and led eventually to the foundation of ISRAEL.BALFOUR DEFINITIONA statement about the constitutional relationship of Great Britain and its DOMINIONS formulated in 1926 by a committee of dominion prime ministers chaired by Earl BALFOUR. It stated that Britain and the dominions were autonomous and equal in status within the British Empire, though Britain retained some responsibility for foreign affairs and defence. It was later endorsed by the Statute of WESTMINSTER.BALFOUR EDUCATION ACTPopular name for the Education Act of 1902, passed by the UK Parliament for England and Wales under A.J. BALFOUR (as leader of the House of Commons and then prime minister). It transferred the supervision and funding of board and voluntary schools to county, county borough, and some borough and urban district councils, which became ‘Local Education Authorities’ (supervised by the central Board of Education, established 1899). Authorities were authorized to support post‐elementary (or secondary) education. Nonconformists protested about the funding of Church of England schools by ratepayers. See also MORANT, ROBERT; BALFOUR EDUCATION ACT AND WALES; GRAMMAR SCHOOL; EDUCATION, ENGLAND/WALES.BALFOUR EDUCATION ACT AND WALESThe provision in the 1902 Education Act for rate‐based support of Church of England schools in Wales generated hostility because most Welsh ratepayers were nonconformists. Encouraged by David LLOYD GEORGE (a Liberal), county councils refused to comply – action known as the ‘Welsh Revolt'. The (Conservative) British government responded with the Coercion of Wales Act (1904), enabling the Board of Education to assume councils' responsibilities. The controversy diminished with the government's fall in 1905 and the Act was largely implemented. See also EDUCATION, WALES; NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, WALES.BALKANS, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT

Prime Minister William PITT the Younger was the first British statesman to express concern at the influence of RUSSIA in SE Europe – in 1788, with the formation of a short‐lived triple alliance against Russia. But the nationalism of Christian peoples subject to the Muslim OTTOMAN EMPIRE made outright British support for the Empire difficult in this aspect of the EASTERN QUESTION. Long‐term British policy aimed at peaceful contraction of Ottoman‐ruled territory in Europe and limitation of Russian gains therefrom. The Royal Navy was ready to defend Istanbul to prevent Russian seizure of the Turkish Straits.

Great Britain helped GREECE to independence (proclaimed 1822) and approved the autonomy of ROMANIA after the CRIMEAN WAR (in treaty of Paris, 1856). Prime Minister Benjamin DISRAELI overturned the treaty of SAN STEFANO at the Congress of BERLIN (1878), but Lord SALISBURY hoped the enlargement of Bulgaria in 1885 would strengthen its resistance to Russian expansion. The subsequent decline of British naval power in the Mediterranean dictated a less active policy. By seeking balance between Russian and Austrian interests, the British foreign secretary Edward GREY worked to contain the Balkan Wars at the Conference of London (1912–13).

In 1918, following WORLD WAR I, a Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created in the western Balkans with British support (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). Britain was among the powers drawn into its disintegration in the 1990s (see YUGOSLAV WARS, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT).

BALLADSSimple songs, with each verse sung to the same melody, which narrate a story, often about love, legendary figures (e.g., Robin HOOD; ROB ROY), or historical events. Documented in England from the 13th century, they flourished throughout the British Isles. Ballads were originally transmitted orally, but in the 16th–19th centuries they were also printed, usually on single sheets or ‘broadsides’. Printing encouraged the writing of new ballads, including socially critical ballads (from the 17th century), and ballads about sensational events. Ballads were spread by emigration to N America and elsewhere. They were collected and edited mainly from the early 19th century.BALLIOL, DERVORGUILLA(b. c.1209; d. 28 Jan. 1290 at Buittle Castle, SW Scotland, aged about 81). A daughter of Alan, lord of GALLOWAY, and his second wife Margaret (eldest daughter of David earl of HUNTINGDON), Dervorguilla married John Balliol (1233). She founded Sweetheart (Cistercian) Abbey (SW Scotland) in his memory (1273) and completed (1282) his foundation for scholars at OXFORD University (see BALLIOL FAMILY). Her royal descent from Earl David enabled their son John BALLIOL to become king of Scots.BALLIOL, EDWARD

(b. c.1283 at Buittle Castle, SW Scotland; d. Jan. 1364, near Doncaster, Yorkshire, England, aged about 80). Eldest son of John BALLIOL (king of Scots 1292–6); claimant to the Scottish kingship.

Having lived abroad during the reign of King ROBERT I (1306–29), Balliol took advantage of the minority of DAVID II to invade E Scotland (Aug. 1332). Victorious at DUPPLIN, he was crowned (24 Sept.) and did homage to King EDWARD III of England (23 Nov.) but was expelled by Dec.

In March 1333 Balliol invaded again and, with Edward's help, was victorious at HALIDON HILL (12 July). He re‐established himself, held a Parliament near Edinburgh (Feb. 1334), but fled to England in late 1334. Another invasion led by Edward and Balliol (July–Aug. 1335) reinstated Balliol, but his supporters lost ground after the battle of CULBLEAN (Nov. 1335) and he was undermined by Edward's war against France from 1337 (see HUNDRED YEARS WAR). Balliol was driven out by late 1338.

After King David was captured at NEVILLE'S CROSS (1346), Balliol invaded again (May 1347), restoring much of S Scotland to English administration and holding his ancestral castle until 1354. On 21 Jan. 1356, as Edward III prepared to invade Scotland, Balliol resigned his claim. See also DISINHERITED; SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357.

BALLIOL, JOHN

(b. c.1250; d. April 1313 at Bailleul, France, aged about 63). King of Scots 1292–6. In 1290 Balliol claimed the vacant kingship of Scotland through his mother, Dervorguilla BALLIOL. He was selected as king by King EDWARD I of England in the GREAT CAUSE. John was inaugurated on 30 Nov. 1292 and did homage to Edward (26 Dec.), recognizing him as overlord of Scotland.

Edward soon restricted John's authority (e.g., by hearing appeals from Scotland in England). In June 1294 Edward demanded military service in France from Scottish magnates. Scots resisted. In July 1295, 12 ‘guardians' took government from John's control and allied with France (23 Oct.; see SCOTTISH–FRENCH ALLIANCE). Edward invaded Scotland (30 March 1296) and defeated John's forces at Dunbar, SE Scotland (27 April). John was deposed (10 July) and stripped of his regalia (from which he was called ‘Toom Tabard' or ‘empty coat').

John was imprisoned in London until 1299, and later retired to France. Meanwhile, the guardians fought the English in Balliol's name until 1304. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357; ROBERT I; BALLIOL, EDWARD.

BALLIOL FAMILYFrom Picardy, NE France, the Balliols held land in NE England from the late 11th century and in Scotland from the mid 12th century; they flourished until 1368. John Balliol (d. 1268) married Dervorguilla, heiress of Alan of Galloway, and later founded a student hostel in OXFORD, England (by 1266; from 1282, Balliol College). Through her royal descent their son John BALLIOL became king of Scots. See also BALLIOL, DERVORGUILLA; BALLIOL, EDWARD; GALLOWAY.BALMERINO TRIALThe trial in Scotland (at EDINBURGH), in March 1635, of James Elphinstone, (2nd) Lord Balmerino, for sedition: he had retained possession of a nobles' petition complaining about innovations in government by King CHARLES I (e.g., the prominence of bishops). Charles had rejected the petition in 1633. Balmerino was tried as an example to the king's opponents. Though convicted and sentenced to death, he was pardoned for fear his execution would provoke popular revolt. See also COVENANTING REVOLUTION.BALTIC STATES, BRITISH RELATIONS WITHBritish naval operations in the Baltic Sea (1918–21) helped to liberate Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania from Bolshevik‐ruled Russia (agreed by treaties 1920). Full diplomatic relations were established (1921–2). Aside from Anglo‐German commercial rivalry, Great Britain viewed the three nations with benevolent detachment. It refused to compromise their independence during talks regarding an Anglo‐Soviet alliance (1939), but the British in practice accepted their annexation by the USSR (1940) while never formally acknowledging Soviet sovereignty. Britain recognized the renewed independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1991. In 2004 the States became members of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION and European Union. See also RUSSIA AND USSR, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.BANCROFT, RICHARD

(b. Sept. 1544 at Farnworth, Lancashire, England; d. 2 Nov. 1610, at Lambeth, Surrey, England, aged 66). Ordained a Church of ENGLAND priest in 1574, Bancroft seized the press that printed the MARPRELATE TRACTS (1589). An opponent of PURITANISM and defender of episcopacy, he was appointed bishop of London in 1597.

In 1604 Bancroft participated in the HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE (Jan.), called by King JAMES VI/I. Following the death of Archbishop John WHITGIFT (Feb.), he presided over the southern Convocation (Church assembly), which adopted his own compilation of 141 constitutions and canons (April). In Oct. he was appointed archbishop of CANTERBURY. Bancroft enforced the canons: about 80 clergy were deprived of their livings for refusing to assent. He also sought to defend Church courts from challenges from COMMON LAW courts.

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSYDispute about Church–State relations in England and Wales soon after the accession of King GEORGE I, provoked by Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of BANGOR and a WHIG. In two pamphlets, published 1716–17, Hoadly defended State authority over the Church and denied that clergy had spiritual authority. He implied that the Church of ENGLAND and DISSENTERS' churches were essentially alike. His views offended HIGH CHURCH clergy. In May 1717 the lower house of Convocation (Church assembly) condemned Hoadly. The Whig ministry discontinued Convocation (until 1842), weakening the High Church faction.BANGOR (IRELAND)

A town in Co. Down, Northern Ireland; from Irish, Beannchar Árd Uladh, meaning ‘Peaked hill’.

Originally an ecclesiastical centre (monastic and lay settlement) founded by Comgall (d. 603), Bangor was dominated in its early years by the founder’s lineage, the Dál nAraide (later replaced by the Dál Fiatach). Though in ULSTER (N Ireland), it maintained links with LEINSTER (E Ireland). It quickly became a considerable intellectual centre, with COLUMBANUS among its scholars. It declined due to VIKING impact (early 9th century), but was replaced by an Augustinian house in 1124, founded by MALACHY. A small town was founded in the 12th or 13th century which became a borough in 1612 and was a centre of the COTTON INDUSTRY in the later 18th and 19th centuries. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL IRELAND.

BANGOR (WALES)

A city in Gwynedd unitary authority, NW Wales; Welsh, meaning ‘Wattle‐fence enclosure’. Bangor was originally the location of a monastery and bishop's seat founded by DEINIOL (d. 584). A new cathedral, dedicated to St Deiniol, was started between 1120 and 1139 and remained the pre‐eminent church of GWYNEDD. A town is first mentioned in 1211. See also CHURCH ORGANIZATION, WALES; UNIVERSITIES, WALES.

Est. popn: 1300, 300; 1600, 900; 1800, 1800; 1900, 11,000; 2000, 13,000.

BANISHMENT ACTLegislation by the Irish Parliament, passed 25 Sept. 1697, which banned Catholic bishops, other senior clergy and regular clergy (i.e., monks, friars) from Ireland. At first it was enforced: 424 regular clergy were expelled in 1698, and only three bishops remained by 1703. But the episcopate and religious orders revived soon afterwards. (The Act was repealed in 1878.) See also ANTI‐CATHOLIC LEGISLATION, IRELAND, 1691 TO 1740s; RELIGIOUS ORDERS AND REGULAR CLERGY, IRELAND FROM 16TH CENTURY.BANK CHARTER ACTLegislation by the UK Parliament, 1844, affecting banking mainly in England and Wales. It sought to reduce economic instability by encouraging country banks to cease note issuing (completed 1921), and by amending the Bank of England’s charter so that ‘issue’ and ‘banking’ departments were separated and note issue was based on rules (‘fiduciary’ or unbacked note issue was limited to £14 million; other notes could be issued backed by gold equivalent). The Act remained fundamental until 1914. See also BANKING, ENGLAND AND WALES; CURRENCY SCHOOL.BANK HOLIDAYSDays when banks are closed by law, which are generally observed as public holidays. The UK Parliament, acting on proposals by Sir John Lubbock, specified dates from 1871: four in England, Wales and Ireland (St Stephen’s Day, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, and first Monday in Aug.), five in Scotland (New Year’s Day, Good Friday, first Monday in May, first Monday in Aug., Christmas Day). Subsequent additions included St Patrick’s Day in Ireland (1903). In 1939 southern Ireland replaced bank holidays with ‘public holidays’; from 2007 St Andrew’s Day was also a holiday in Scotland. See also HOLIDAYS.BANKING, ENGLAND AND WALES

Banking businesses developed in the 1640s–70s in LONDON, when some goldsmiths provided financial services for merchants and others, such as holding cash, discounting (buying) bills of exchange (contracts for payments), issuing promissory notes (early banknotes) and transferring funds. Parliament in 1697 confined JOINT‐STOCK banking to the recently founded BANK OF ENGLAND, and in 1708 limited private banks to six partners. Early expansion of banking mostly occurred in London: in 1750 about 50 ‘City banks’ served mercantile businesses, while ‘West End banks’ provided for landowners. There were only 12 elsewhere.

So‐called ‘country banks’ increased thereafter: to 370 by 1800 and possibly 780 by 1810. Many were conducted alongside other businesses. Their notes circulated as local currency, and bill discounting provided working capital to businesses (to late 19th century). London banks facilitated the transfer of surplus funds of agricultural regions to industrial regions. Banks were liable to collapse during financial crises.

From 1826 joint‐stock banking, including note issuing, was allowed beyond 65 mi (104 km) from London (limit removed, without note issuing, 1833). By 1841 there were 115 joint‐stock banks, which opened branches and took over partnership banks, though note issuing was discouraged from 1844 (see BANK CHARTER ACT). LIMITED LIABILITY was available from 1858. From the later 19th century, joint‐stock banks also merged. By 1914 there were about 20 partnership and 40 joint‐stock banks, and 7000 branches. ‘Merchant banks’ undertook overseas business.

By the mid 1920s, domestic banking was dominated by a ‘big five’: Barclays, Lloyds, Midland, National Provincial, Westminster. The last two merged in 1968 (renamed ‘National Westminster’ 1970; acquired by Royal Bank of Scotland 2000); Midland was bought by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation in 1992. From the 1980s some building societies became banks, increasing competition. In 2009, following a crisis, the British government acquired majority ownership of Royal Bank of Scotland and part‐ownership of Lloyds (latter terminated 2017). See also BANKING, SCOTLAND; CURRENCY, ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1660S.

BANKING, IRELAND

Banks were started from the 1720s (six in DUBLIN by 1730s). They were usually operated by merchants, who bought bills of exchange (thereby providing capital), transmitted money and issued notes. Economic crises usually resulted in bank collapses.

In 1782, supported by PATRIOTS, Parliament founded the Bank of Ireland (opened 1783), and encouraged its pre‐eminence by limiting other note‐issuing banks to six business partners. Following a crisis in 1820, the Bank of Ireland Act (1821) permitted joint‐stock banks with unlimited partners over 50 (Irish) mi (100 km) from Dublin. New banks included the Hibernian Bank (1825) and Ulster Bank (1836). The Bank of Ireland acted as a central bank in assisting other banks. The 1845 Bank Act limited note issuing to six banks. By 1914, about 860 bank branches existed. During the 19th century SAVINGS BANKS and building societies were also formed.

Co‐operation between banks from the later 19th century culminated in the Irish Banks’ Standing Committee formed by nine banks in 1920. Co‐ordination continued despite the PARTITION OF IRELAND (1921). Suspicion of banks caused the IRISH FREE STATE government to undertake investigations (1926, 1934–8) and found State‐sponsored credit providers. IFS banks maintained close relations with the Bank of England until WORLD WAR II, when an Irish Central Bank was created (1942).

Mergers in the 1950–60s left four main banks: Bank of Ireland and Allied Irish Banks based in the Republic of Ireland; Northern Bank and Ulster Bank based in Northern Ireland (subsidiaries of British banks). Rapid expansion of lending from the later 20th century left many banks and other financial institutions potentially insolvent when a financial crisis erupted in 2008. The Republic’s government was forced to guarantee deposits and nationalize companies, including Anglo‐Irish Bank, Allied Irish Banks and Bank of Ireland. See also CURRENCY, IRELAND FROM 16TH CENTURY.

BANKING, SCOTLAND

The first bank, the Bank of Scotland (in EDINBURGH), was incorporated by Scotland’s Parliament in 1695 with a 21‐year monopoly. Its purpose was to encourage commerce by expanding credit (gold and silver coins were scarce). It discounted bills, lent money, and from 1704 issued notes. Two similar banks followed (founded by royal charter): Royal Bank of Scotland (1727) and British Linen Company (1746), the latter to promote the linen industry but which specialized in banking and pioneered a branch network. From 1747 banks were also founded in provincial centres, notably GLASGOW. Financed mainly by merchants, they provided services for trade, agriculture and industry, including cash accounts (overdrafts), deposit accounts, and note issuing. (Parliament’s prohibition on joint‐stock companies in 1720 was not applied in Scotland.) By 1826 there were 36 banks. In 1810 Henry Duncan, minister of Ruthwell (Dumfriesshire), founded a parish savings bank for the poor. His idea spread: by 1818 there were 182 such banks (see SAVINGS BANKS).

In the 1840s restrictive legislation halted expansion and encouraged conservatism: the 1844 Bank Charter Act effectively prevented new banks from issuing notes; from 1845 note issuing beyond an authorized amount had to be backed by specie. Crashes (e.g., large Western Bank in 1857) and amalgamations reduced numbers: to ten by 1878, eight by 1914, five by 1958, three by 1971 (Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland, Clydesdale Bank, founded 1838 and owned by Midland Bank since 1920). Categorized from 1971 as ‘clearing banks', in the 1970s–90s they developed business both within and outside Scotland.

From the late 1990s Royal Bank of Scotland expanded rapidly, briefly becoming the world’s largest bank, and in 2001 Bank of Scotland merged with Halifax Building Society as HBOS. But in 2008 both faced collapse. The former was taken largely into government ownership, and the latter was acquired by Lloyds (2009) with government support. See also CURRENCY, SCOTLAND.

BANKING SCHOOLsee CURRENCY SCHOOLBANK OF ENGLAND

Originally a JOINT‐STOCK COMPANY incorporated in 1694 by royal charter, comprising subscribers to a £1.2 million loan to the English government (for funding the War of the GRAND ALLIANCE). Enlarged from 1696, the Bank became the government’s main source of short‐term loans and its own bank (e.g., holding balances, providing bullion for CURRENCY), and also London’s leading bank. It enjoyed a monopoly of joint‐stock banking in England and Wales (1697–1826), was the leading issuer of notes, discounted bills of exchange (contracts for payments), and provided accounts to other banks. From 1763 (financial crisis), it was regarded as ‘lender of last resort’. Its support for other banks gave it considerable influence, a situation enhanced from 1797 when convertibility of its notes into gold was suspended, compelling other banks to hold its notes as reserves.

When convertibility was restored in 1821, the Bank operated the GOLD STANDARD to encourage economic stability. After a financial crisis in 1825, it opened provincial branches to improve the distribution of notes and sovereigns. Crises in 1836 and 1839 resulted in the BANK CHARTER ACT (1844) which encouraged a monopoly in England and Wales for Bank of England notes, and regulated note issue. The Bank was now effectively a British ‘central bank’. A liaison committee with other banks was formally established in 1911. In the later 19th and early 20th centuries the Bank exerted influence internationally through London’s world pre‐eminence as a financial centre.

Following suspension of convertibility in 1919 (after WORLD WAR I), the gold standard was restored in 1925, only to be abandoned in 1931. Nationalization of the Bank (1 March 1946) enabled central government from the 1950s to use the BANK RATE for its monetary policy. Control was redelegated to the Bank in 1997, though another authority undertook supervision of banks and insurance companies (restored 2013). See also FINANCIAL REVOLUTION; BANKING, ENGLAND AND WALES.

BANK OF IRELANDsee BANKING, IRELANDBANK OF SCOTLANDsee BANKING, SCOTLANDBANK RATEOriginally the ‘discount rate’ of the BANK OF ENGLAND (for discounting bills of exchange, 18th–19th centuries), normally above other rates. From the 1860s to 1930s it protected gold and other UK reserves (by attracting inflows at a high interest rate), and from the 1950s was part of government monetary policy (influencing commercial interest rates and general economic activity). Replaced Oct. 1972 by ‘minimum lending rate’, to encourage competition among banks. See also GOLD STANDARD.BANKS, JOSEPH

(b. 13 Feb. 1743 at London, England; d. 19 June 1820 at Isleworth, Middlesex, England, aged 77). Interested in botany from school days, Banks attended OXFORD University. The inheritance of an estate soon afterwards (1764) enabled him to pursue natural history. Encouraged by Daniel Solander, a follower of the Swedish botanist Linnaeus, Banks participated in three overseas expeditions as a naturalist: to NEWFOUNDLAND and Labrador (1766), around the world with James COOK (1768–71), and to Iceland (1772). In 1766 he was elected a fellow of the ROYAL SOCIETY.

Banks created an outstanding herbarium (collection of dried plants, now at the Natural History Museum, London). From 1773, as effectively the director, he made the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew (Surrey) a leading research centre. As the longest serving president of the Royal Society (1778 to death), Banks encouraged the exchange of scientific ideas within Great Britain and overseas. He was created a baronet (1781).

BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE OFFought S of STIRLING (C Scotland) on 23–24 June 1314. About 8000 Scots under King ROBERT I defeated about 17,000 English under King EDWARD II. The English were seeking to prevent the surrender of Stirling Castle (a last English stronghold in Scotland). Robert afterwards dealt with his enemies in Scotland (see CAMBUSKENNETH PARLIAMENT). The defeat worsened Edward's position in England, although England withheld recognition of Scotland's independence (until 1328). See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357.BAPTISTS, ENGLAND

Protestant Christian DISSENTERS who practise baptism of adult believers (not infants). Influenced by John Smyth (d. 1612), who rebaptized himself, English Baptists established a church in LONDON in 1612. From 1633 they divided into General and Particular Baptists, the latter adhering to CALVINISM. Baptists contributed to radical politics in the mid 17th century (see ENGLISH REVOLUTION SECTS). They were persecuted after the RESTORATION (1660) but granted freedom of worship by the TOLERATION ACT (1689).

Numbers declined from the early 18th century. Congregations formed county associations from 1764. In 1770, after many congregations had drifted into UNITARIANISM, evangelical General Baptists created the New Connexion. In 1790 there were 2800 New Connexion and 17,000 Particular Baptists. The latter created a General Union in 1813.

Baptists increased rapidly in the 19th century, sustained by prominent preachers such as C.H. Spurgeon (1834–92). In 1891 the General Union and New Connexion formed the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland. English membership peaked in 1907 at almost 268,000 (attendance at services differed). Membership then declined to 173,000 in 1970, 130,000 in 2010. See also NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, ENGLAND.

BAPTISTS, IRELANDsee NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, IRELANDBAPTISTS, SCOTLANDsee DISSENT, SCOTLANDBAPTISTS, WALESsee NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, WALESBARBADOS

An island and former English colony in the WEST INDIES (British from 1707). It was uninhabited when English settlers arrived in 1627. After initially cultivating tobacco as an export crop, they switched in the 1640s to sugar, which thereafter dominated the economy and stimulated the SLAVE TRADE. Sugar was grown on PLANTATIONS owned by a ‘plantocracy’ and worked by slaves from WEST AFRICA. Barbados was a ‘proprietary colony’ (colony held by owners under the Crown). A House of Assembly was founded in 1639. Slaves outnumbered free men after 1650.

A major slave revolt occurred in 1816, and emancipation was granted in 1834. Barbados became a CROWN COLONY in 1885. The Assembly was elected by universal suffrage from 1951. Barbados belonged to the Federation of the West Indies 1958–62 and became independent in 1966 (with the British monarch as head of State). Approx. population in 1921, 156,000; in 1965, 244,000.

BARBER, ANTHONY(b. 4 July 1920 at Hessle, Yorkshire, England; d. 16 Dec. 2005 at Ipswich, Suffolk, England, aged 85). A tax barrister, Barber was a Conservative MP (1951–64, 1965–74), and held posts in the British government in the 1950s–60s. He was Party chairman 1967–70. In 1970 he succeeded Ian MACLEOD as chancellor of the Exchequer, under Edward HEATH. He initially reduced public spending, but fear of rising unemployment prompted a reflationary Budget (March 1972). The ensuing ‘Barber boom’ (1973) resulted in accelerating INFLATION, a statutory INCOMES POLICY, a MINERS’ STRIKE and the government’s downfall. Barber left politics in 1974 and was created Lord Barber.BAREBONE’S PARLIAMENTIn England, 1653, during the Commonwealth, a single‐chamber assembly which replaced the RUMP PARLIAMENT. Its 137 members were nominated by the Army Council to represent English counties, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Convened on 4 July, it surrendered power to Oliver CROMWELL on 12 Dec. after moderates became alarmed by demands for radical reform of law and tithes. The Parliament’s nickname, derived from London MP and preacher Praise‐God Barebone, was intended to defame the assembly as a body of religious fanatics. See also COMMONWEALTH AND PROTECTORATE.BARING, EVELYN(b. 26 Feb. 1841 at Cromer, Norfolk, England; d. 29 Jan. 1917 at London, England, aged 65). From a banking family, Baring became a financial administrator in Egypt (1876–80; controller‐general of finance from 1879), and India (1880–3). In 1883, following Great Britain’s intervention, he was appointed consul‐general to EGYPT, becoming effectively its ruler. He reformed Egypt’s finances and introduced agricultural, social and legal improvements. He supported reconquest of SUDAN (undertaken 1896–8) and creation of a condominium (jointly ruled country). Baring was created Lord Baring (1892), Viscount Cromer (1899) and earl of Cromer (1901). He retired in 1907.BARLOW, WILLIAM

(b. c.1480 in Essex, England; d. 13 Aug. 1568 at Chichester, Sussex, England, aged about 88). Originally an Augustinian canon, by 1535 Barlow supported Church reform (see REFORMATION, ENGLAND) and was appointed prior of Haverfordwest (SW Wales) by Anne BOLEYN. In 1536 he became bishop of ST ASAPH (NE Wales), then of ST DAVIDS (SW). He attacked popular devotion to relics, saints and pilgrimages.

Under King EDWARD VI, Barlow moved (1548) to Bath and Wells (SW England), but resigned after MARY's accession (1553). Imprisoned, he recanted and then fled abroad. Under ELIZABETH, he was bishop of Chichester (S England) from 1559. His five daughters all married bishops. See also REFORMATION, ENGLAND/WALES.

BARNETT, SAMUEL(b. 8 Feb. 1844 at Bristol, Gloucestershire, England; d. 17 June 1913 at Hove, East Sussex, England, aged 69). A Church of England clergyman who ministered in London from 1867, Barnett helped to found the CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY (1869). In 1884 he started Toynbee Hall in the deprived East End where university students could live among the poor (he was warden 1884–1906). It inaugurated the UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENT MOVEMENT. Barnett also catered for spiritual and recreational deprivation by founding the Whitechapel Art Gallery (1901) and supporting country holidays for slum children.BARONIn England, term used in the late 11th–14th centuries for an important tenant‐in‐chief of the king (derived from Latin baro, meaning ‘man’). Barons, including EARLS, comprised the upper NOBILITY. In the 13th century they were known collectively as the ‘baronage’. During the 14th century the summoning of earls and selected barons to PARLIAMENT, and the creation of new ranks of nobility, transformed the status of baron to that of the lowest rank in the PEERAGE (lords summoned individually to Parliament). See also SOCIAL STRUCTURE, ENGLAND 1066 TO 16TH CENTURY.BARONETA hereditary status and title bestowed in England and Wales from 1611, ranking below the PEERAGE (nobility) and above KNIGHTS (i.e., part of the GENTRY). It was created by King JAMES VI/I as a means of raising money to tackle the Crown’s shortage of funds after the failure of the GREAT CONTRACT. Income from sales of baronetcies was used to defend English settlements in ULSTER (N Ireland). Baronetcies were conferred for Ireland from 1619, and for Scotland and NOVA SCOTIA from 1625.BARONIAL CONFLICT AND WARS

In England, struggles 1258–67 between King HENRY III and BARONS alienated by Henry’s reckless foreign policy, oppressive government and favouring of foreign relatives.

On 30 April 1258, after Henry had supported a relative in a dispute against a baron, leading nobles demanded reform of government (see LUSIGNANS). In June Henry accepted, by oath, the Provisions of OXFORD which subordinated his government to an elected Council and required co‐operation with PARLIAMENT. The reforms were extended in Oct. by the Provisions of WESTMINSTER. The Council collapsed in late 1260, enabling Henry to regain authority (e.g., appointing supporters to offices). On 12 June 1261 a papal bull was published which released Henry from his oath, causing the reformer Simon de MONTFORT to go abroad (July).

In 1263 Montfort returned (April), and reformers attacked royalists’ estates. The Provisions of Oxford were reimposed (16 July), with Montfort dominating government. During the summer, some reformers (e.g., Roger BIGOD) changed sides. On 1 Nov. a truce was agreed and Louis IX of France was asked to arbitrate. He condemned the reformers (Mise of Amiens, 23 Jan. 1264), yet opposition continued. On 14 May, at the battle of Lewes (Sussex), reformers captured Henry and his heir Edward. Montfort effectively ruled in the king’s name, looking to Parliament for support.

In 1265 Edward escaped (May), rallied support and defeated opponents at Evesham, Worcs. (4 Aug). Montfort was killed. Henry conciliated opponents with moderate reforms and land restitution (see KENILWORTH, DICTUM OF), though fighting continued until July 1267.

BARONY, IRELAND

Name used from the 16th century for subdivisions of SHIRES (or counties), totalling about 250. They are based on the Gaelic Irish unit the trícha cét (meaning ‘thirty hundred’), which refers to military musters and is recorded as a territorial unit from the 11th century. It has been suggested that most of the territories represent the areas of small kingdoms (see TÚATH).

After the Anglo‐Norman invasion (1169–70), the trícha cét was equated with the Welsh CANTREF. From the late 17th to 19th centuries baronies were important in county‐based government – used for assessing public works and levying CESS. In 1715 the Irish Parliament authorized the appointment of constables for baronies. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURES, IRELAND.

BARONY, SCOTLAND

A basic unit of local (judicial) administration from the 13th century to the 18th; until the later 15th century, most were roughly equivalent to parishes, and probably contained a dozen or so FERMTOUNS. Many were continuations of early THANAGES and 12th‐century knights' fees.

Formal development into baronies resulted from royal grants of judicial powers (over, e.g., theft, assault, accidental homicide). There were over 400 baronies c.1400, and more than 1000 in the 17th century. Barons' powers were reduced in the 1650s, and although they were not abolished by the Heritable Jurisdictions Act (1747), they fell into disuse. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURES, SCOTLAND; LAIRD.

BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY EVICTIONSIn England and Wales, 1662, following RESTORATION of the monarchy, the resignation of about 1000 clergy from their Church of ENGLAND livings for rejecting the Church’s ceremonies as prescribed in the newly revised PRAYER BOOK. Under the 1662 Act of Uniformity, clergy were required to accept the book by oath, and renounce the SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT (1643), by St Bartholomew’s Day (24 Aug.), when TITHES were payable. The eviction of so‐called ‘Bartholomew men’ strengthened NONCONFORMITY. See also CLARENDON CODE.BASTARD FEUDALISM

Term invented in 1885 by the English historian Charles Plummer to describe lordship and political society in late‐medieval England (14th–15th centuries). It described a situation in which lords obtained services and military support by recruiting and retaining followers mainly with money payments (instead of with land, as in a ‘traditional’ feudal system; see MILITARY SERVICE, ENGLAND 1066 TO MID 17TH CENTURY). Payments were made as either annual fees (annuities) or daily wages, and were sometimes agreed by contract (or indenture). Lords also provided uniforms or other insignia and food (so‐called ‘livery and maintenance’). Uniforms and insignia indicated allegiance. The ‘retaining’ of GENTRY and others provided magnates with ‘retinues’ (effectively private armies) which they could use for feuding, influencing legal proceedings and warfare. A lord’s total body of followers was called an ‘affinity’.

Bastard feudalism has a longer and wider history than Plummer envisaged, and political society was arguably more fluid, and less contractual. Retaining existed by the mid 12th century though it grew during the 14th century. The House of Commons complained about its effects (e.g., lawlessness) from the 1370s onwards, and bastard feudalism facilitated the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT (1450s–80s). Similar developments occurred in Wales and parts of Ireland, and to a lesser extent in Scotland (see MANRENT).

From the late 13th century, English rulers relied on retinues recruited by noblemen to provide military forces, but in the late 15th and 16th centuries they sought to control retaining. It remained a means of raising armed forces for the Crown until the CIVIL WARS (1640s), although its importance declined in the later 16th century with the revival and development of the MILITIA. See also PATRONAGE.

BATH

A city in SW England, by the R. Avon; centre of Bath and North East Somerset (unitary authority). Site of natural hot springs.

Bath flourished as a spa under the Romans (1st–4th centuries; called Aquae Sulis, meaning ‘Springs of Sulis’), then declined in the 5th century. The site was taken by the Gewisse in the late 6th century (see WESSEX), and named after the ruins of Roman baths. A MINSTER was founded in the late 7th century, and a small town later developed. Bath was a bishop’s see 1088–1206 and a joint see thereafter (with Wells, Somerset).

In the 18th century Bath became England’s premier spa and pleasure capital, over which Beau Nash (1674–1762) presided. Splendid houses, streets, squares, crescents and facilities (e.g., pump house) were built. After bombing in WORLD WAR II, buildings were subsequently restored. Bath gained two universities: Bath University of Technology (chartered 1966), Bath Spa University (upgraded college, 2005). See also EDGAR; TOWN PLANNING; CONSUMER REVOLUTION; HIGHER EDUCATION, EXPANSION OF.

Est. popn: 1086, 1500; 1300, 1500; 1600, 2000; 1800, 35,000; 1900, 52,000; 2000, 83,000.

BATH, EARL OFsee PULTENEY, WILLIAMBAXTER, RICHARD

(b. 12 Nov. 1615 at Rowton, Shropshire, England; d. 8 Dec. 1691 at London, England, aged 76). A Church of ENGLAND clergyman from 1638, with PURITAN sympathies, Baxter served as a preacher in Kidderminster (Worcestershire) 1641–2, and as a chaplain in Parliament’s NEW MODEL ARMY 1645–7. He returned to Kidderminster in 1648 as vicar. He became well known in the 1650s for his writings (notably The Saint’s Everlasting Rest, 1650), and in 1652 founded the Worcestershire Voluntary Association of Ministers to encourage unity.

After the RESTORATION (1660), Baxter declined the offer of a bishopric from King CHARLES II. He participated in discussions towards a Church settlement encompassing a broad range of Protestants (see WORCESTER HOUSE DECLARATION; SAVOY CONFERENCE). When these failed, he left his living (1662). Thereafter he devoted himself to writing and preaching.

BAYEUX TAPESTRYAn embroidery, at Bayeux Cathedral (in Normandy, N France), depicting the Norman invasion of England (1066). The surviving work measures 223 ft by about 20 in (68 m by about 50 cm). The end is lost. Its early history is unrecorded. It was probably made in England for ODO OF BAYEUX before 1082. See also NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.BAYLY, LEWIS(b. in 1570s, probably at Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire, Wales; d. 26 Oct. 1631, probably in Wales, aged around 65). A combative personality and adherent of PURITANISM who wrote the popular devotional work The Practice of Piety (1611). The Welsh translation, Yr Ymarfer o Dduwioldeb (1630), was influential into the 19th century. Bayly held Church posts in England, and was bishop of BANGOR 1616–31 and patron of John DAVIES.BBCsee BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATIONBBC WORLD SERVICEName used from 1965 for the international radio transmissions (or ‘external services’) of the BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION. An ‘Empire Service’ in English was started in 1932, followed by an Arabic service in Jan. 1938 and French, German and Italian services during the MUNICH CRISIS (Sept.). By the end of 1940, during WORLD WAR II, the BBC broadcast in 34 languages, rising to 45 in 1945. The Empire Service was renamed the Overseas Service (Nov. 1939), General Overseas Service (1943), and World Service (1965). Though the BBC’s overseas broadcasts were supported financially by the British government, they were considered trustworthy around the world, and sustained British influence following the decline of the BRITISH EMPIRE. In 2015 over 300 million people listened to BBC services in 29 languages. A television service was started in 1991.BEAGHMORE STONE CIRCLESA complex of STONE CIRCLES, rows and cairns in Co. Tyrone, N Ireland. The exposed part consists of seven circles, including three pairs. The circles consist of many small, closely spaced stones, and are associated with pre‐existing small cairns. The long rows lead tangentially onto the circles. Use of the site centres on c.1600 in the early Middle BRONZE AGE.BEAKER CULTURE, BRITAINA prehistoric culture defined by the appearance in the very late NEOLITHIC of ceramic vessels with an ‘S’‐shaped profile and incised decoration; made and used over the period c.2700 BC–1000 BC (including most of the BRONZE AGE). Beaker culture is often associated with the first metals. Although Beaker culture has traditionally been taken as evidence for the immigration of an ethnic group or ‘culture’, it is now thought to reflect more complex networks of contact and exchange and the use of Beakers in new ceremonial and sacred events.BEAKER CULTURE, IRELANDBeaker pots, dating from c.2500– c.1700 BC (CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD and Early BRONZE AGE), occur in settlements, ritual sites and in burials sometimes accompanied by copper daggers and an archer’s equipment. They were once regarded as evidence of an intrusive ‘Beaker Folk’, but their generally indigenous contexts imply no significant population influx.BEATLES, THEA pop music group from LIVERPOOL (NW England), consisting from 1962 of John Lennon (1940–80), Paul McCartney (b. 1942), George Harrison (1943–2001) and Ringo Starr (b. 1940). They dominated popular music in Great Britain from 1963 until their break‐up in 1970, performing many songs by Lennon and McCartney. They achieved immense success in the USA. The Beatles’ music energized 1960s YOUTH CULTURE, and remained popular worldwide.BEATON, DAVID

(b. c.1494 at Markinch, Fife, E Scotland; d. 29 May 1546 at St Andrews, Fife, aged about 52). Clergyman; appointed bishop of Mirepoix, France (1537), cardinal (1538), and archbishop of ST ANDREWS (1539). As an adviser of King JAMES V from 1528, Beaton negotiated his French marriages and in 1541 persuaded him to avoid a meeting arranged by King HENRY VIII, provoking the English invasion of 1452.

On 10 Jan. 1543, following James's death, the regent, the earl of ARRAN, appointed Beaton as CHANCELLOR (replacing Gavin DUNBAR), only to arrest and remove him (27 Jan.). Arran then arranged peace and marriage treaties with England (agreed Aug. 1543). Beaton meanwhile constructed a large opposition. In Sept. Arran capitulated to Beaton; in Dec. Parliament cancelled the treaties and Beaton was reappointed chancellor. He was also a PAPAL LEGATE from 1544. As a fervent opponent of Church reform, Beaton had George WISHART burnt for heresy (1 March 1546), provoking his murder by Wishart's supporters. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1357 TO 1603.

BEAUFORT, EDMUND

(b. c.1406; d. 22 May 1455 at St Albans, Hertfordshire, England, aged 49). Beaufort was involved in the French wars in the 1420s–30s (see HUNDRED YEARS WAR). He was created earl of Dorset in 1442, marquess in 1443. In 1444 he succeeded his brother as earl of Somerset, becoming the head of the Beaufort faction in English politics. He replaced Richard, duke of YORK, as lieutenant of France and Normandy in 1447 and was created duke of Somerset in 1448.

Somerset’s direction of the war was disastrous: by June 1450 the remaining English‐held lands in N France were lost. Yet Somerset remained in favour with King HENRY VI until Henry fell ill and York became ‘protector’. Somerset was imprisoned 1454–5. On release, he rejoined the king. He was killed when royalist (‘Lancastrian’) forces clashed with ‘Yorkists’ at the first battle of St Albans. See also BEAUFORT FAMILY; YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT.

BEAUFORT, HENRY

(b. c.1375; d. 11 April 1447 at Winchester, Hampshire, England, aged about 71). The second illegitimate son of JOHN OF GAUNT and Katherine SWYNFORD, Beaufort was appointed bishop of LINCOLN (1398), then of WINCHESTER (1404). Under King HENRY IV (half‐brother) he was CHANCELLOR 1403–5 and a leading member of government 1410–12.

Under HENRY V (nephew, ruled 1413–22), Beaufort served as chancellor (1413–17) and provided loans for war in France (see HUNDRED YEARS WAR). During the (Church) Council of Constance he was appointed cardinal (1417), but Henry compelled him to refuse (1419).

Under HENRY VI (great‐nephew), Beaufort was chancellor from 1424, vying with the duke of GLOUCESTER for authority in government and over the king (a minor); in Oct. 1425 their forces met on London bridge. Their conflict was settled by the duke of BEDFORD and Beaufort resigned as chancellor (1426) with the concession of taking the cardinalate (1427). In France 1430–1, he presided at the trial of JOAN OF ARC and crowned Henry VI as king of France. He remained excluded from English government until 1435, when he also joined peace negotiations with France. After Henry VI was declared ruler (1437), Beaufort was effectively his chief minister until 1443. See also BEAUFORT FAMILY.

BEAUFORT, MARGARET

(b. 31 May 1443 at Bletsoe, Bedfordshire, England; d. 29 June 1509 at Westminster, Middlesex, England, aged 66). Margaret was the surviving child of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset (d. 1444). Her royal lineage made her marriage prospects political. After the duke of SUFFOLK attempted a union with his heir, her wardship passed to King HENRY VI’s half‐brothers Edmund and Jasper TUDOR. She married Edmund in 1455 but he died before their son Henry was born (1457). Later she married Henry Stafford (d. 1471) and Thomas Stanley (d. 1504), a YORKIST.

When HENRY VI died (21 May 1471), Henry Tudor became a LANCASTRIAN claimant to the English throne held by the Yorkist EDWARD IV. Margaret urged him into exile in Brittany. He invaded in 1485 to depose RICHARD III. Margaret lived through Henry’s reign, honoured as ‘the king’s mother’ (see HENRY VII). She was patron of William CAXTON (by 1489) and founded colleges at CAMBRIDGE. See also BEAUFORT FAMILY; YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT.

BEAUFORT FAMILY

A noble family whose blood‐link to the English Crown underpinned the Tudor claim in 1485. The Beauforts originated in the extramarital liaison between JOHN OF GAUNT, third son of King EDWARD III, and Katherine SWYNFORD (1370s). Their four children were legitimized in 1396 (papal bull) and 1397 (letters patent). The family name derived from a French lordship formerly held by Gaunt. The Beauforts became key supporters of their relatives the LANCASTRIAN kings.

The leading members were: Henry BEAUFORT (c.1375–1447), Gaunt’s second Beaufort son; Edmund BEAUFORT (c.1406–55), second son of Gaunt’s oldest son (John) and counsellor of HENRY VI; Margaret BEAUFORT (1443–1509), niece of Edmund by his older brother (John). Edmund Beaufort’s older sister Joan married JAMES I of Scotland (1424). Margaret’s son Henry Tudor seized the throne of England in 1485 (see HENRY VII). See also YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT.

BEAVERBROOK, LORD

(b. 25 May 1879 at Maple, Ontario, Canada; d. 9 June 1964 at Cherkley Court, Surrey, England, aged 85). A self‐made tycoon, Max Aitken emigrated to England in 1910, became a confidant of Bonar LAW, and was elected a Conservative MP (Dec.). He was created a baronet (1911) and Lord Beaverbrook (1917), and served as British minister of information (Feb.–Oct. 1918) under David LLOYD GEORGE.

During the 1920s, Beaverbrook developed his popular Daily Express newspaper. It was strongly imperialist and critical of Conservative leader Stanley BALDWIN, and advocated ‘imperial preference’ (from 1929; see TARIFF REFORM) and APPEASEMENT (late 1930s). During WORLD WAR II, Beaverbrook served Winston CHURCHILL, another friend, as minister of aircraft production (1940–1), minister of supply (1941–2) and lord PRIVY SEAL (1943–5). See also NEWSPAPERS, ENGLAND.

BECHUANALAND

A former British territory in southern Africa. European travellers and missionaries (including Robert MOFFAT) were active N of CAPE COLONY in the early 19th century, and from the 1830s Boers from the Transvaal claimed land in the area. German colonization to the W in the 1880s caused the British to establish the CROWN COLONY of British Bechuanaland (1885) and Bechuanaland PROTECTORATE to the N (1885, extended 1892). The colony was annexed to Cape Colony in 1895 (later included in SOUTH AFRICA).

In 1895 African chiefs, visiting London, persuaded the British government to retain the protectorate rather than cede control to the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, though the company used Bechuanaland as a base for expansion northwards (see SOUTHERN RHODESIA). British administration operated through native rulers. Self‐government was granted in 1965, and the protectorate became an independent republic as Botswana in 1966. Approx. population in 1921, 153,000; in 1965, 525,000.

BECKET, THOMAS

(b. 21 Dec. 1120 at London, England; d. 29 Dec. 1170 at Canterbury, Kent, England, aged 50). A merchant's son, Becket rose under the patronage of THEOBALD OF BEC, archbishop of CANTERBURY. In Jan. 1155 he was appointed CHANCELLOR by King HENRY II. They became close friends. In 1162 Becket was elected archbishop of Canterbury despite the claims of Gilbert FOLIOT.

To Henry's dismay, Becket resisted his attempts to assert jurisdiction over the English Church. After Becket rejected the Constitutions of CLARENDON (issued Jan. 1164), Henry sought to ruin him. Becket was charged with offences at a royal council (Oct.) but fled into exile in France (2 Nov.).

Becket returned (1 Dec. 1170), having excommunicated bishops who had crowned HENRY THE YOUNG KING. His headstrong behaviour angered Henry. An outburst from Henry provoked four knights to murder Becket in his cathedral. He was canonized in 1173, and his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral became a major pilgrimage destination. See also CHAUCER, GEOFFREY.

BEDCHAMBER CRISISA constitutional dispute which prevented a change of government in Great Britain, 1839. After the WHIG prime minister Viscount MELBOURNE resigned, Queen VICTORIA invited the CONSERVATIVE Sir Robert PEEL to form a minority government (8 May). He asked the queen to indicate support by replacing some ladies of her bedchamber who were related to Whigs. When the queen refused, Peel declined to become prime minister and Melbourne resumed office (10 May). The queen’s apparent partisanship was criticized. See also KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1680S.BEDE

(b. 673 or 674 in Bernicia; d. 26 May 735 at Jarrow, Northumbria, aged about 61). Around 680 Bede, aged 7, entered Monkwearmouth monastery. From 682 he lived at its nearby ‘twin' house of Jarrow.

Bede became one of the most learned and prolific authors in Europe, producing biblical commentaries, saints' Lives, studies of chronology and computation, and the Ecclesiastical History of the English People (completed 731). An outstanding historical source, the History narrates the progress of Christianity among Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms, and demonstrates how virtuous kings are rewarded on Earth. See also BENEDICT BISCOP; NORTHUMBRIA.

BEDFORD, 4TH DUKE OF

(b. 30 Sept. 1710 at Streatham, Surrey, England; d. 15 Jan. 1771 at London, England, aged 60). John Russell, a WHIG, succeeded as duke in 1732. Following the fall of Robert WALPOLE (1742), he was a reforming first lord of the Admiralty (1744–8), (southern) SECRETARY OF STATE (1748–51), lord lieutenant of Ireland (1755–61), and lord PRIVY SEAL (1761–3). In Sept. 1762 he was sent to Paris, France, by the earl of BUTE to negotiate a treaty to end the SEVEN YEARS WAR.

Bedford became president of the Council in the ministry of George GRENVILLE (1763). He feared that Bute remained influential with King GEORGE III and sought to have him banned from office. Bedford was dismissed in 1765. Some of his followers joined the ministry of William PITT the Elder in late 1767.

BEDFORD, JOHN DUKE OF

(b. 20 June 1389 in England; d. 14 Sept. 1435 at Rouen, Normandy, aged 46). John of Lancaster, first brother of King HENRY V, was created duke of Bedford in 1414. After Henry renewed war against France (1415; see HUNDRED YEARS WAR), Bedford served as ‘lieutenant’ (regent) in England in 1415, 1417–19, 1421–2. He defeated a Franco‐Genoese fleet off Harfleur in 1416, and campaigned in France 1420–1. When HENRY VI succeeded (1 Sept. 1422), Bedford became heir presumptive and ‘protector’.

As the young king’s regent in France, Bedford married (1423) Anne, sister of Philip, duke of BURGUNDY, a union intended to cement the Anglo‐Burgundian alliance. He strengthened England’s hold on Normandy, achieving a heavy defeat of Franco‐Scots forces at Verneuil (17 Aug. 1424). He was recalled to England to resolve disputes between (his brother) the duke of GLOUCESTER and (his uncle) Henry BEAUFORT (1425–7), and his regency was suspended 1430–2 for Henry’s coronation in Paris.

The English position in France weakened after defeat at ORLÉANS (1429). Bedford returned to England to obtain reinforcements (1433–4). Peace negotiations began but failed at the Congress of ARRAS (Aug.–Sept. 1435), with the Burgundian alliance also ending. Bedford died soon afterwards. See also WOODVILLE FAMILY.

‘BEECHING REPORT’Popular name for a plan for the modernization of Great Britain’s nationalized RAILWAYS (full title, The Reshaping of British Railways), published 1963, which was prepared by Richard Beeching, chairman of the British Railways Board. Beeching proposed closure of 280 economically unviable lines and 1850 stations to restore profitability. The 18,000 route mi (28,800 km) of railways were reduced by 1969 to 12,000 mi (19,200 km), and stations from 7000 to 3000.BEHN, APHRA(b. 14 Dec. 1640 in Kent, England; d. 16 April 1689 at London, England, aged 48). Behn possibly served as a Royalist spy in the 1650s, and in 1666 was an agent for Lord ARLINGTON in Antwerp (Spanish Netherlands). A playwright from 1670, she had at least 19 plays staged, including The Rover (1677) about a comic rake. Many reflected strong Royalist views. She became a TORY propagandist during the EXCLUSION CRISIS (1679–81). From 1684 Behn published prose fiction, including Oronooko (1688), a story which attacked slavery. See also ENGLISH LITERATURE, ENGLAND.BELFAST

The capital city of Northern Ireland, by the R. Lagan; from Irish Béal Feirste, meaning ‘Mouth of Farset stream’.

Belfast town was developed from 1603 by the English soldier Sir Arthur CHICHESTER (granted charter of self‐government by King JAMES VI/I in 1613). In the later 17th century it became the centre of the rural Ulster LINEN INDUSTRY and an important port (Ireland’s fourth‐largest town in 1680s).

Late 18th‐century Belfast became an industrial centre. Cotton‐spinning factories flourished in and around Belfast c.1780–1870s. (By 1811, 15 of 33 Belfast factories were steam powered.) Flax‐spinning mills operated from the 1820s (29 by 1850), and linen weaving was mechanized in factories from the 1850s. SHIP BUILDING became substantial with the expansion of Harland and Wolff (from 1860s). By the 1880s Belfast produced a third of Ireland’s net industrial output and two‐thirds of industrial exports. It received city status in 1888 and became the capital of NORTHERN IRELAND in 1921.

Aircraft manufacturing was started in 1937, but Belfast’s economy declined from the 1960s and life was disrupted 1969– c.2000 by sectarian conflict (see TROUBLES). See also INDUSTRY, NORTHERN IRELAND.

Est. popn: 1800, 20,000; 1900, 349,000; 2000, 280,000.

BELFAST AGREEMENTSigned on 10 April 1998 (Good Friday) at BELFAST, Northern Ireland, by representatives of the British and Irish governments and of eight political parties; part of Northern Ireland’s PEACE PROCESS. It provided for an elected ASSEMBLY and devolved power‐sharing EXECUTIVE in Northern Ireland; bodies representing both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland; and a British–Irish Council. Prisoners associated with PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS would be released, and the Republic would revoke its constitutional claim on Northern Ireland. The Agreement was endorsed by referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland on 22 May. See also NORTHERN IRELAND.BELGAEA confederation of Gallic tribes in NW Europe (between the Rivers Rhine, Seine and Marne) which was defeated by the Roman general CAESAR (57, 52 BC). Commius, leader of the Atrebates tribe, fled to Britain, establishing a Belgic kingdom of the Atrebates in S Britain. His son Verica's expulsion by the CATUVELLAUNI provided the pretext for the Roman invasion of AD 43 (see CLAUDIAN INVASION). In Roman Britain (1st–5th centuries), the Atrebates' territory comprised two civitates, named for the Atrebates and Belgae (see CIVITAS). See also IRON AGE TRIBES, BRITAIN; WINCHESTER.BELGIUM (SOUTHERN NETHERLANDS), ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH

From 1689 England (Great Britain from 1707) fought repeatedly to prevent French domination of the (largely Catholic) southern Netherlands (Spanish ruled to 1714, then Austrian ruled). But they were conquered by the French in 1794 (annexed 1795). In 1815, following the fall of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, the British foreign secretary Viscount CASTLEREAGH arranged their unification with the (mainly Protestant) northern (Dutch) NETHERLANDS in a ‘United Kingdom of the Netherlands’. When the southern Netherlands revolted in 1830, Lord PALMERSTON recognized their independence, as ‘Belgium’, rather than drive them into the arms of FRANCE. Having forced a Dutch withdrawal, he later sponsored international guarantees of neutrality (by treaty of London, 1839).

Revulsion at King Leopold’s misrule in the Belgian Congo was overlaid when Germany invaded Belgium on 4 Aug. 1914, in violation of the 1839 treaty. This became the immediate cause of British entry into WORLD WAR I. Belgian troops operated with the Allies (1914–18). Having guaranteed the Belgian–German frontier under the treaty of LOCARNO (1925), Britain briefly intervened in May 1940 (early in WORLD WAR II), following sudden Belgian capitulation to Germany. British forces participated in Belgium’s liberation in 1944, and from 1949 both countries were allies within the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION.

BELIZEsee BRITISH HONDURASBELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM

(b. 3 March 1847 at Edinburgh, Scotland; d. 2 Aug. 1922 at Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia, Canada, aged 75). After brief periods in Scotland and England as a teacher, university student and elocutionist, Bell emigrated with his parents to CANADA (1870). He moved to the USA, becoming professor of vocal physiology and elocution at Boston University (1873) and a citizen (1874).

Interested in telegraphy and familiar with types of apparatus that turned sound into images, Bell produced an ‘ear phonautograph’ (1874), a machine that recorded speech on glass employing a human ear and part of a skull. It stimulated the idea of using a membrane to transmit speech electrically. In 1876 and 1877 he filed the fundamental patents that established him as inventor of the telephone. Bell also developed a ‘photophone’ for transmission of speech by light beam, and was interested in numerous other scientific matters (e.g., aeroplanes). See also ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS, GREAT BRITAIN/IRELAND.

BELL, HENRY(b. 7 April 1767 at Torpichen, Linlithgowshire, Scotland; d. 14 Nov. 1830 at Helensburgh, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, aged 63). In 1807, after working as a stonemason, millwright, engineer and builder, Bell opened the Baths Inn at Helensburgh on the Clyde estuary. Interested in applying steam propulsion to ships, he designed and built Comet, which was launched on the Clyde in 1812. Propelled by paddles, it was the first successful steam‐powered passenger vessel in Europe (wrecked 1820). Bell sought to develop steamship services, and in 1825 inaugurated a service from GLASGOW to Inverness via the Caledonian Canal. See also HOLIDAYS; CANALS, SCOTLAND.BEND OF THE BOYNEAn island‐like area by the R. Boyne, Co. Meath (E Ireland), where the river changes course. Known in Irish as Brú na Boinne, this was a focus of NEOLITHIC settlement. Around 3000 BC, the large passage tombs at KNOWTH, Dowth and NEWGRANGE were constructed. Ceremonial activity later shifted to open‐air enclosures and HENGES.BENEDICT BISCOP(b. c.628 in Bernicia; d. 12 Jan. 689, probably at Monkwearmouth, Northumbria, aged about 61). An Anglian nobleman who entered monastic life in Francia (mid 660s), Biscop founded (673 or 674) St Peter's monastery at Monkwearmouth in BERNICIA (NE England). A ‘twin' house, St Paul's, was founded at Jarrow (681 or 682). Using books acquired in Rome (671–2, 685), Biscop created one of the finest libraries in Europe. It made possible the work of BEDE. See also EDUCATION AND LEARNING, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.BENEFIT OF CLERGY

The principle that clergy should be tried in Church courts. It was conceded in England for some felonies by King HENRY II in 1176, following the murder of Thomas BECKET (1170), but remained contentious. By the mid 14th century, clergy were commonly transferred from royal to Church courts if found guilty in the former, enabling them to be acquitted or convicted with a lesser punishment in the latter. By 1400 reading was used as a test of clerical status, enabling laity to claim it.

The benefit was removed for murder and theft from churches in 1532 by the REFORMATION PARLIAMENT. Burglary and rape were excluded in 1566. The benefit was largely abolished in 1827. See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND.

BENN, TONY

(b. 3 April 1925 at London, England; d. 14 March 2014 at London, aged 88). A Labour MP from 1950 and heir to a viscountcy (and membership of the UK House of Lords), Benn sought to renounce his succession. On becoming (2nd) Viscount Stansgate (1960), he was barred from the House of Commons (ban maintained after re‐election in by‐election, 1961). He succeeded in obtaining the Peerage Act (1963), under which he disclaimed his peerage. He was re‐elected as an MP (held seats 1963–83, 1984–2005).

Benn held British government offices under Harold WILSON (1964–70, 1974–6) and James CALLAGHAN (1976–9). As the controversial champion of Labour’s left wing, he sought to become deputy leader of the Party in 1981, but lost narrowly to Denis HEALEY. See also PEERAGE, DISCLAIMING OF.

BENSON, E.W.(b. 14 July 1829 at Birmingham, Warwickshire, England; d. 11 Oct. 1896 at Hawarden, Flintshire, Wales, aged 67). A Church of England clergyman, Edward White Benson was the first master of Wellington College (1858–72), a school which commemorated the duke of WELLINGTON. In 1877 he became bishop of the new diocese of Truro (for Cornwall, SW England). As archbishop of CANTERBURY from 1883, he encouraged overseas missions and the creation of new Anglican churches. In 1889 Benson revived the archbishop’s court to consider an accusation of RITUALISM against Bishop Edward King of Lincoln. His judgment (1890) generally supported King. He died while visiting W.E. GLADSTONE. See also ANGLICAN COMMUNION.BENTHAM, JEREMY(b. 4 Feb. 1748 at London, England; d. 6 June 1832 at Westminster, Middlesex, England, aged 84). After attending OXFORD University (1760–3) and studying law, Bentham published critical works about government, law, economics and education (from 1776). He sought to establish fundamental principles. His most influential work, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), propounded UTILITARIANISM: that human actions should be judged by their effect on society’s general happiness. He particularly influenced the PHILOSOPHIC RADICALS.BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM

(b. 14 Sept. 1774 at Piccadilly, Middlesex, England; d. 17 June 1839 at Paris, France, aged 64). A son of the 3rd duke of PORTLAND, and a WHIG, Bentinck joined the British Army in 1791. He served as governor of Madras (now Chennai), SE India (1803–7), when he was blamed for the anti‐British ‘Vellore Mutiny’ (July 1806), and as an envoy in Sicily (1811–15).

As governor‐general of INDIA from 1828, Bentinck made economies in expenditure, revenue reforms in NW India, and increased the employment of natives in official positions. He extended Anglicization by instituting English in higher courts and government business, and prohibited suttee (burning of widows). He retired in 1835 and became an MP.

BEOWULFThe longest heroic poem in Old English. Its time of composition is uncertain; suggestions range from the 8th to early 11th century. It survives in a single 11th‐century manuscript. Though written in Anglo‐Saxon England, its story is set in pre‐Christian Denmark and Sweden. It displays the working of Germanic kingship, expressed through gift giving, feasting and feud. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.BERESFORD, JOHN

(b. 14 March 1738 at Dublin, Ireland; d. 5 Nov. 1805 at Walworth, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, aged 67). A member of the Irish House of Commons from 1760, Beresford was appointed a commissioner of revenue in 1770, during the reorganization of government patronage instigated by Viscount TOWNSHEND. As chief commissioner, from 1780, he commissioned James Gandon to design Dublin's new Custom House.

After William PITT the Younger became prime minister of Great Britain (Dec. 1783), he recruited Beresford as an adviser on Irish affairs (with John FITZGIBBON and John FOSTER). Beresford supported Pitt's decision to unite Ireland with Britain, but opposed Catholic Emancipation. After the union he sat in the UK House of Commons. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY; UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN.

BERFEDDWLAD, Y

(Welsh, meaning ‘The middle country'). A region in N WALES, between the Rivers Conwy and Dee, which was contested by Normans (later English) and Welsh; called ‘The Four Cantrefs' in English.

It comprised the CANTREFS of Rhos, Rhufoniog, Dyffryn Clwyd, and Tegeingl (English, Englefield). It was alternatively known in Welsh as Gwynedd‐is‐Conwy, i.e., ‘GWYNEDD below [east of] the Conwy', as distinct from Gwynedd proper, or Gwynedd‐uwch‐Conwy (‘Gwynedd above the Conwy').

In the early Middle Ages (6th–9th centuries) the cantrefs were not combined; Rhos and Rhufoniog, at least, had independent rulers. In the 9th century, they fell to Gwynedd, though English settled in Tegeingl by the late 10th century. Y Berfeddwlad came under early Norman pressure, from c.1070 (see ROBERT OF RHUDDLAN). In the 12th and 13th centuries it moved between English and Welsh control, according to the fortunes of the rulers of Gwynedd.

BERLIN, CONGRESS OFA meeting of leaders of European Great Powers in Berlin, Germany, from 13 June to 13 July 1878, held to negotiate revision of the treaty of SAN STEFANO. It was called following protests by Great Britain and Austria. The vigorous diplomacy of the earl of Beaconsfield (Benjamin DISRAELI) helped to restore territory to the OTTOMAN EMPIRE and check the advance of Russian influence in the BALKANS.BERLIN AIRLIFT

An operation by Western powers (USA, Great Britain, France), during the COLD WAR, to sustain part of Berlin. In 1945, following WORLD WAR II, both Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones, occupied by the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR. Berlin lay within the USSR’s German zone; its western zones (population, 2 million) were sustained by a railway and motorway from the W.

On 24 June 1948, three days after the Western powers announced the introduction of a new currency to Berlin, the USSR, ruled by Josef Stalin, stopped road and rail traffic to its western zones. Stalin intended to force the Western powers from Berlin or possibly to disrupt their economic revival of western Germany. They responded with a continuous cargo airlift of food and other supplies, supported by other countries. In the face of Western determination, the USSR lifted its blockade on 12 May 1949, and the airlift ended on 30 Sept. Flights totalled over 277,000, carrying 1.6 million tons.

BERMUDA

A British overseas territory in the NW Atlantic, consisting of 130 coral islands, 20 of which are inhabited. Settlement began after an English ship, sailing to VIRGINIA, was shipwrecked in 1609. Men remained behind to preserve a claim. The islands were initially known as the Somers Islands after the shipwrecked admiral Sir George Somers (1554–1610). They were governed 1612–14 by the VIRGINIA COMPANY (London group), and from 1615 by the Somers Islands Company. They were soon known as ‘Bermuda’ after an earlier Spanish discoverer. An assembly met from 1620. After a rebellion in 1684, Bermuda became a CROWN COLONY. African slaves were brought to work on PLANTATIONS from 1616.

During the 20th century, tourism, banking and insurance became mainstays of the economy. Bermuda was granted internal self‐government in 1968 (with the British monarch remaining head of State). Bermuda became a British DEPENDENT TERRITORY in 1983, and an overseas territory in 2002. Approx. population in 1921, 23,000; in 2010, 64,000.

BERNARD OF NEUFMARCHÉ(b. c.1045, probably in Normandy; d. c.1125, aged about 80). A Norman who went to England with WILLIAM I; through marriage he acquired land in Herefordshire (W England, abutting Wales). Bernard invaded C Wales c.1093 and created the Marcher lordship of Brecon, founding also the town of Brecon and St John's Priory, Brecon. See BRYCHEINIOG; NORMANS, IMPACT ON WALES; MARCH OF WALES.BERNARD OF ST DAVIDS(fl. from 1115; d. between 30 June and Dec. 1148). The first Norman bishop of ST DAVIDS, SW Wales, 1115–48; imposed by King HENRY I of England against local wishes. Bernard resisted URBAN OF LLANDAFF's attempt to expand the Llandaff diocese into SW Wales (1127–33); he then sought, unsuccessfully, metropolitan (archiepiscopal) status for St Davids in Wales. See also NATIONAL PATRON SAINTS; CHURCH, MEDIEVAL WALES.BERNERS‐LEE, TIMOTHY

(b. 8 June 1955 at London, England). After studying physics at OXFORD University, Berners‐Lee worked in telecommunications and in the COMPUTING industry as a software designer. In 1980, while briefly at CERN (the European particle physics laboratory), he designed a program to store files that included connections between texts (hyperlinks), and on returning in 1984 developed procedures that allowed computers to communicate with each other.

In 1989 Berners‐Lee proposed an arrangement for enabling information to be accessed through the Internet (the recently created global network of interlinked computer networks), using a standard ‘address’ for sources, and he wrote software for the first ‘web server’ and ‘web browser’ (1990–1). Placed in the public domain by CERN in 1993, the system expanded rapidly into the resource called the ‘World Wide Web’. After leaving CERN (1994), Berners‐Lee remained involved in computing, artificial intelligence and Web development. He was elected a fellow of the ROYAL SOCIETY (2001) and knighted (2004).

BERNICIA

A kingdom (6th–7th centuries) which initially occupied modern Co. Durham, Tyne and Wear, and Northumberland (NE England). Bernicia's Brittonic name (of unknown meaning) suggests a British origin (5th or 6th century; see POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN). By the mid 6th century, following moderate Germanic settlement (by ‘Angles'), a Germanic dynasty ruled.

In the 7th century the royal dynasties of Bernicia and DEIRA (to the S) sought to rule both kingdoms. Æthelfrith of Bernicia (ruled 592–616) also ruled Deira from 604. EDWIN of Deira ruled both kingdoms 616–33 (permitted Christianity 619, with short‐lived see at YORK from 627). The kingdoms had separate rulers 633–4 (Eanfrith in Bernicia). OSWALD of Bernicia ruled both kingdoms 634–42 and extended Bernicia northwards (see GODODDIN). (635, Oswald reintroduced Christianity with see at Lindisfarne; see AIDAN.) OSWIU, ruled 642–70, overcame resistance in Deira. His successor, EGFRITH, annexed Deira (679), creating NORTHUMBRIA. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.

BERWICK, (1560) TREATY OFAgreed on 27 Feb. 1560 (at BERWICK‐UPON‐TWEED, adjacent to NE England), between Scotland's pro‐Protestant LORDS OF THE CONGREGATION and English representatives (following the deposition of the Catholic MARY OF GUISE, regent for MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS). The treaty permitted English intervention against French troops in Scotland while guaranteeing Scotland's independence. Religion was not mentioned. See also EDINBURGH, (1560) TREATY OF; REFORMATION, SCOTLAND.BERWICK, (1639) TREATY OFSigned on 18 June 1639 (at BERWICK‐UPON‐TWEED, adjacent to NE England), between King CHARLES I and leaders of Scottish COVENANTERS. It ended the First Bishops' War. Scots would disband; Charles would withdraw his army and attend a General Assembly of the Church of SCOTLAND and a meeting of the Scottish Parliament. His failure to do so provoked the Second Bishops' War. See also COVENANT, WARS OF THE, OR BISHOPS’ WARS; COVENANTING REVOLUTION.BERWICK‐UPON‐TWEED

(English, meaning ‘Barley farm on R. Tweed'). A coastal town in Northumberland, NE England, on the N bank of the R. Tweed; the chief town on the eastern Anglo‐Scottish BORDER.

Made a BURGH and head of a SHERIFFDOM by King DAVID I (ruled 1124–53), Berwick was until 1296 Scotland's leading international port. It was captured by King EDWARD I of England in 1296; retaken by ROBERT I of Scotland in 1318; captured by EDWARD III of England in 1333 and held until 1461 (ceded by HENRY VI). The English recaptured it in 1482. Berwick was given independent status in 1551, but remained an English garrison town (refortified 1558–69) and was incorporated into England in 1844. Since 1296 it has been mainly a market town.

Est. popn: 1300, 2000; 1600, 1800; 1800, 7000; 1900, 13,400; 2000, 12,800.

BESANT, ANNIE(b. 1 Oct. 1847 at London, England; d. 20 Sept. 1933 at Adyar, Madras Province, India, aged 85). In 1873, after becoming a freethinker, Besant left her clergyman husband and rural home. She moved to London where she collaborated with the atheist Charles BRADLAUGH (1875–86), became a public speaker, and earned notoriety for advocating contraception (see BIRTH CONTROL). A member of the FABIAN SOCIETY, in 1886–8 she helped to unionize unskilled workers (so‐called ‘New Unionism’ movement). From 1889 Besant was involved in the syncretic mysticism of theosophy. In India from 1893, she promoted education, and from 1909 campaigned for Indian independence. She joined the Indian National Congress in 1913 and presided at its national meeting in 1917. See also THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.BEUNO(fl. in 7th century; d. perhaps in 642). The founder and abbot of a monastery at Clynnog, GWYNEDD (NW Wales); dedicatee of other churches in N Wales. Beuno was later regarded as a saint. His life was written in Welsh in the 14th century. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL WALES.BEVAN, BRIDGET(b. probably Oct. 1698 at Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire, Wales; d. 11 Dec. 1779 at Laugharne, Carmarthenshire, aged 81). Of GENTRY stock (born Bridget Vaughan, married 1721), ‘Madam Bevan' was chief patron and adviser of Griffith JONES who launched ‘circulating schools' in the 1730s. She continued them after his death in 1761 and bequeathed £10,000 to perpetuate them. Unfortunately, her will was disputed and, starved of funds, the schools withered. See also EDUCATION, WALES.BEVAN, NYE(b. 15 Nov. 1897 at Tredegar, Monmouthshire, Wales; d. 6 July 1960 at Chesham, Buckinghamshire, England, aged 62). A coalminer, Aneurin Bevan (known as ‘Nye’) became a trade union official and a Labour MP (1929). Famed for radical oratory, he established the British NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE while minister of health (1945–51) in the post‐war government of Clement ATTLEE. Transferred to the Ministry of Labour in Jan. 1951, he resigned on 21 April in protest at the introduction of health service charges by Hugh GAITSKELL, chancellor of the Exchequer. In Dec. 1955 he unsuccessfully contested the Party leadership, but became deputy leader in 1959 (to Gaitskell).BEVANITESAn informal left‐wing faction within the British LABOUR PARTY, headed by Nye BEVAN. It emerged in March 1952 when 57 MPs voted against the Party’s defence policy. Bevanites opposed increased military spending and German rearmament, but were divided when Bevan voiced approval for ATOMIC WEAPONS (1957).BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM(b. 5 March 1879 at Rangpur, Bengal, India; d. 16 March 1963 at Oxford, Oxfordshire, England, aged 84). Welfare promoter. Concerned about social problems (from 1900s), especially UNEMPLOYMENT, Beveridge worked for the British CIVIL SERVICE from 1908 (knighted 1919). In 1909, he established State‐funded labour exchanges (bureaux for job finding). As director of the London School of Economics (1919–37), he encouraged sociological research with practical applications; while master of University College, OXFORD (1937–44), he returned to government service (1940, during WORLD WAR II). In Dec. 1942, as a committee chairman, Beveridge produced Social Insurance and Allied Services, the visionary ‘Beveridge Report’ which proposed comprehensive welfare provision to eradicate poverty. It was substantially enacted (see WELFARE STATE). Beveridge was a Liberal MP (1944–5), and created Lord Beveridge (1946).‘BEVERIDGE REPORT’see BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM; WELFARE STATEBEVIN, ERNEST

(b. 9 March 1881 at Winsford, Somerset, England; d. 14 April 1951 at London, England, aged 70). A farm labourer, carter and trade unionist, Bevin in 1921 amalgamated almost 50 unions into the TRANSPORT AND GENERAL WORKERS’ UNION. He served as its general secretary 1921–40. In 1939 he was instrumental in securing trade union support for the UK war effort (see WORLD WAR II).

In May 1940 Bevin was appointed minister of labour and national service in the wartime coalition government under Winston CHURCHILL and elected a Labour MP. As foreign secretary (1945–51), in the post‐war Labour government of Clement ATTLEE, he shaped British policy towards the COLD WAR (in defiance of left‐wing critics) while helping to implement MARSHALL AID and create NATO (NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION). His handling of PALESTINE was controversial. See also WORLD WAR II, IMPACT ON BRITISH ECONOMY.

BIBLE, ENGLISH

Parts of the Latin Bible were translated into Old English in the 8th–11th centuries (e.g., by ÆLFRIC), and in the 12th–14th centuries into Middle English, though latterly translation was discouraged. The first full translation was produced in OXFORD in the 1380s, influenced by John WYCLIF (d. 1384). Its association with heresy caused Convocation (Church assembly) to condemn it (1409) and prohibit unauthorized translations (see LOLLARDY, ENGLAND; CENSORSHIP, ENGLAND AND WALES). William TYNDALE, who translated the New Testament from Greek and part of the Old Testament from Hebrew (1520s–30s), had to work abroad and was executed.

A favourable attitude developed after England’s break from papal jurisdiction (confirmed 1534). Miles Coverdale published a complete translation in Germany (1535), and in 1536 Thomas CROMWELL ordered churches to provide English Bibles. Coverdale’s version was reissued (1536); it was followed by Matthew’s Bible (1537, a compilation from Tyndale and Coverdale) and the Great Bible (1539, edited by Coverdale).

In 1560 English Puritans in Geneva (Switzerland) produced the popular Geneva Bible. Its radical commentary provoked Archbishop Matthew PARKER to commission the Bishops’ Bible (1568), a revision of the Great Bible. It was replaced in 1611 by a version ordered King JAMES VI/I (see HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE). Later known as the Authorized Version or King James Bible, it became regarded as a literary masterpiece. Meanwhile Catholics had produced the Douai–Reims Bible (New Testament 1582, Old Testament 1610).

The Authorized Version was revised in the late 19th century (published 1881–5, American Version 1901). Since then numerous new translations and versions have been made, including the Jerusalem Bible (1966) and New English Bible (1970). See also ANGLICIZATION, SCOTLAND.

BIBLE, IRISHElizabeth I, as ruler of Ireland, decided by 1564 that an Irish‐language Bible translation should be produced to encourage the conversion of Gaelic Irish people to Protestantism. The New Testament was published in 1603, translated from Greek by William Daniel (a Church of IRELAND archbishop). A translation of the Old Testament, organized by Bishop William Bedell, was completed in 1640 and printed in 1685. A complete Bible was issued in 1690. The translations were used by both Protestants and Catholics. A translation authorized by the Catholic Church, the Maynooth Irish Bible, was published in 1981. See also REFORMATION, IRELAND.BIBLE, WELSHExtensive translations first appeared in the 16th century, during the REFORMATION. William SALESBURY published Bible readings in 1551 and helped to obtain an Act of 1563 which required Welsh bishops to provide every parish with a printed Welsh Bible by 1567. That year saw publication of the New Testament, largely Salesbury's work. The entire Bible, translated or revised by William MORGAN, was published in 1588, and a revision in 1620 (by Richard Parry and John DAVIES). A new translation appeared in 1988.BICYCLES AND BICYCLE INDUSTRIES

Two‐wheeled, feet‐propelled ‘hobby‐horses’ were made in England from the early 19th century. A mechanically propelled bicycle, with treadles driving a rear wheel, was invented in 1839 in Scotland by Kirkpatrick Macmillan but not manufactured. Following developments in France, pedal‐driven bicycles were manufactured in England from the 1860s. Further advances included the chain drive (patented 1876) and tubular, diamond‐shaped frame (basis of so‐called ‘safety bicycle’, created 1884–5). Hard wheel rims made early machines uncomfortable.

Bicycles and cycling were transformed by the invention in 1887 of the pneumatic tyre (by Scotsman J.B. Dunlop, in BELFAST, NE Ireland). Bicycles with pneumatic tyres were manufactured in Ireland from 1889 (in DUBLIN), then in England where mass production rapidly developed, especially in the W Midlands. From the mid 1890s, people of all classes in Great Britain could purchase cycles, though in Ireland they remained luxury items until c.1918. Touring and racing became widespread, encouraged by clubs. In Ireland, the organization of sports cycling was fractured by national divisions and disputes after the PARTITION OF IRELAND (1921), lasting until 2006. British competitive cycling attained high‐profile success in the early 21st century – in 2012 Bradley Wiggins was the first British competitor to win the prestigious ‘Tour de France’ race.

In 1960, following a merger, Raleigh (at Nottingham, C England) became the world’s largest bicycle manufacturer. Its output declined severely in the 1980s due to overseas competition; volume production ceased in 1999. In the Republic of Ireland, bicycle manufacturing ceased in 1976 (burning of Raleigh factory, Dublin) but was revived in 2014.

BIG BANGNickname for reforms to the LONDON Stock Exchange, implemented 27 Oct. 1986. Under pressure from the British government, ‘restrictive practices’ were abolished, principally the division between jobbers (dealers in shares at the Exchange, so‐called ‘market makers’) and brokers (traders of shares with jobbers on behalf of investors). The ‘trading floor’ was replaced with electronic trading, and the Exchange changed from an association into a company. A main purpose of ‘big bang’ was to increase foreign investment. See also YUPPIE OR YUPPY.BIGOD, ROGER

(b. c.1215 in England; d. 1270 at Thetford, Norfolk, England, aged about 55). Son of Hugh Bigod, 3rd earl of Norfolk (d. 1225), Roger Bigod was invested as earl in 1233 and succeeded as MARSHAL (by right of his mother) in 1246. From 1255 he was hostile to King HENRY III and his French relatives (see LUSIGNANS), and from 1258 helped to lead the party that imposed reforms (see OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF). He served on the barons’ supervisory Council (to early 1260), before Henry regained authority.

In 1263, after the reformer Simon de MONTFORT had imposed his authority on the king, Bigod rejoined Henry’s side; then, after Henry was captured (May 1264), he co‐operated with Montfort’s (second) government (1264–5). See also BARONIAL CONFLICT AND WARS.

BIMETALLISMThe practice of basing currency value on gold and silver reserves, according to a fixed relative value between the two metals. Used by some countries in the 19th century, it was advocated in Great Britain (e.g., by the Bimetallic League) between the late 1870s and 1890s, and adoption was considered by a Gold and Silver Commission (1887—90). Supporters argued that it would allow expansion of money supply and facilitate trade with silver‐using countries. The GOLD STANDARD was retained.BIRGHAM, TREATY OFRatified on 18 July 1290 (at Birgham, SE Scotland) by the ‘guardians’ of Scotland, who had agreed with King EDWARD I of England that his heir, EDWARD (II), would marry the infant Scottish queen, MARGARET, ‘THE MAID OF NORWAY'. Their heir would rule England and Scotland, the latter remaining independent. The treaty became irrelevant with Margaret's death (Sept. 1290). See also GREAT CAUSE; SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357.BIRMINGHAM

A city and metropolitan borough in C England; formerly in Warwickshire.

Birmingham was a settlement from the 6th or 7th century until the 1160s when a small town was developed. (Its name means ‘Village of the family or followers of Beorma’.) Metal working was prominent by the 15th century.

During the 17th century, thanks to local iron ore, coal and wood, Birmingham emerged as a major industrial centre, producing and trading metal products (e.g., knives, scythes). During the 18th century, the population expanded ten‐fold. Products increased to include screws, buttons, jewellery, and guns. From 1775, Matthew BOULTON and James WATT built steam engines at nearby Handsworth. Birmingham was a CANAL hub by 1790 and a RAILWAY centre from 1837.

Birmingham became associated with religious NONCONFORMITY and political radicalism (see RADICALS). It gained parliamentary representation (1832) and a town council (1838). Municipal improvement was later promoted by Joseph CHAMBERLAIN. Birmingham acquired city status (1889), a university (1900), and a bishop (1904). Boundary changes in 1911 made it England’s second largest city.

In the 20th century Birmingham’s manufacturing diversified to include MACHINE TOOLS, BICYCLES, MOTORCYCLES, MOTOR VEHICLES, CHEMICALS and plastics. The city attracted considerable immigration by AFRICAN CARIBBEANS and SOUTH ASIANS in the 1950s–1960s. The centre was transformed by the Bull Ring shopping centre (1964), and four additional universities were created (by upgrading): Aston (1966), Birmingham City (1992), University College (2012), Newman (2013). See also HIGHER EDUCATION, EXPANSION OF.

Est. popn: 1300, 1000; 1600, 2500; 1800, 73,000; 1900, 552,000; 2000, 1,025,000.

BIRMINGHAM CAUCUSName for the Birmingham Liberal Association, founded 1865 in the English town of BIRMINGHAM; the first permanent local party organization in Great Britain. In a three‐member constituency, where each elector had two votes, it directed supporters so as to secure three Liberal MPs. It became the power base of Joseph CHAMBERLAIN. See also LIBERAL PARTY.BIRRELL, AUGUSTINE(b. 19 Jan. 1850 at Wavertree, Lancashire, England; d. 20 Nov. 1933 at London, England, aged 83). A lawyer, prolific author and (Liberal) member of the UK Parliament (1889–1900, 1906–18), Birrell served as CHIEF SECRETARY FOR IRELAND from Jan. 1907. He encouraged the HOME RULE MOVEMENT, established the National University of Ireland, acceptable to Catholics (1908; see UNIVERSITIES, IRELAND), and compelled the sale of some estates (1909 Land Act, the ‘Birrell Act’). Birrell failed, however, to appreciate the growing strength of republicanism and was surprised by the EASTER RISING of 1916. After it had been crushed, he resigned (3 May). See also LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND.BIRTH CONTROLArtificial methods (alternatives to long‐used ‘natural’ methods) spread in Great Britain from the 1870s with the manufacture of rubber sheaths or condoms and development of women’s products (e.g., Dutch cap). The distribution of condoms to soldiers in WORLD WAR I (1914–18), to combat venereal disease, extended awareness. Artificial birth control contributed to declining fertility in Britain into the 1930s, leading to a smaller average family size. Its use was controversial, particularly in the 1920s (e.g., when promoted publicly by Marie STOPES), but was accepted by the Church of England in 1930. The Roman Catholic Church remained opposed. Contraceptive pills for women, available from 1961, notably changed sexual behaviour. See also BRADLAUGH, CHARLES; BESANT, ANNIE.BIRTH CONTROL, SOUTHERN IRELANDIn 1935 the IRISH FREE STATE prohibited the import or sale of contraceptive devices. The availability of contraceptive pills from 1961 (not prohibited) led to challenges against legislation (e.g., 1971, overt import of devices from NORTHERN IRELAND on the ‘contraceptive train’). In 1973 the Republic’s Supreme Court deemed the importation ban illegal (McGee case). The 1979 Family Planning Act, passed despite Catholic opposition, allowed contraceptives to married couples on prescription. Sales to all persons over 18 were allowed in 1985. See also WOMEN’S MOVEMENT FROM 1960s, IRELAND; CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922.BISHOPS’ BOOKA comprehensive doctrinal statement compiled by bishops and other clergy for the English Church (full title, Institution of a Christian Man), authorized Sept. 1537 by King HENRY VIII for three years. More conservative than the TEN ARTICLES (1536), the book affirmed Catholic sacraments and the doctrine of purgatory. Nevertheless, its theology allowed a Lutheran interpretation, and it was hostile to the Catholic cult of images. See also KING’S BOOK; REFORMATION, ENGLAND.BISHOPS’ EXCLUSION BILLLegislation proposed in the English Parliament in 1641–2 to exclude bishops from the House of Lords, to overcome their resistance to political and ecclesiastical reforms. It was passed by the House of Commons on 23 Oct. 1641, by the Lords on 13 Feb. 1642. King CHARLES I accepted the Bill on 14 Feb. to buy time and enable Queen HENRIETTA MARIA to escape abroad. The Act was repealed by the CAVALIER PARLIAMENT in 1661. See also LONG PARLIAMENT.BISHOPS’ WARSsee COVENANT, WARS OF THE, OR BISHOPS’ WARSBLACK, JOSEPH

(b. 16 April 1728 at Bordeaux, France; d. 6 Dec. 1799 at Edinburgh, Scotland, aged 71). The son of an Ulsterman in the wine trade, Black studied at GLASGOW University from 1744, eventually specializing in medicine, and at EDINBURGH University from 1752. His doctoral thesis (1754) indicated the existence of a gas distinct from ‘common air’. Further experiments, published in 1756, showed that a ‘fixed air’, derived from a solid, could be distinguished from air in the atmosphere, launching the crucial idea that gases could be differentiated in the same way as liquids and solids.

Black succeeded William CULLEN at Glasgow as lecturer in chemistry (1756), and soon became a professor. He developed the concept of ‘latent heat’ (the energy absorbed by a substance which causes change, as ice is affected before melting). James WATT was a friend. Succeeding Cullen as professor of chemistry at Edinburgh in 1766, Black undertook research to improve industrial processes and public health. Though he published little, he was influential internationally through his students. See also ENLIGHTENMENT, SCOTLAND.

BLACK ACTName for legislation, passed by the British PARLIAMENT in 1723, which created over 50 new capital offences in England and Wales connected with poaching and property. An addition to the GAME LAWS, it was provoked by the activity of poaching gangs who blackened their faces. The Act was the most severe statute passed in the 18th century. It was regularly renewed until most provisions were repealed in 1827. See also LAW, ENGLAND FROM 1066; LEGAL REFORMS, ENGLAND AND WALES, 1820s.BLACK ACTSName (of obscure origin) for Acts of the Scottish Parliament in May 1584 reflecting the anti‐presbyterian influence of James STEWART, earl of Arran and chancellor (1584–5). They denounced presbyteries, proclaimed royal supremacy over matters spiritual and temporal, confirmed the authority of bishops and made them primarily responsible to the Crown rather than the General Assembly (altering the Concordat of LEITH). See also CHURCH ORGANIZATION, SCOTLAND FROM 16TH CENTURY.BLACK AND TANSNickname for British ex‐soldiers who served during the War of IRISH INDEPENDENCE as reinforcements to the Royal Irish Constabulary, March 1920–July 1921. The name, taken from a pack of hunting hounds in Co. Limerick, was first used in April 1920 when a group rampaged through Limerick. Their initial ‘uniform' was a mix of dark green (RIC) and khaki (army). They became notorious for violent reprisals against republican sympathizers. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF.BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHENAn important Welsh manuscript (in the National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth) which was copied c.1250 in CARMARTHEN Priory (SW Wales). It includes early poetry (religious poetry; prophetic poems linked to Merlin; Stanzas of the Graves) and work by 12th‐ and 13th‐century poets including CYNDDELW BRYDYDD MAWR. See also WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON ENGLAND

The bubonic and pneumonic plague known (from the 16th century) as the ‘Black Death’ affected England in 1348–9. Originating in Asia, it swept through Europe from 1347 and entered England in June 1348, probably at Melcombe Regis (Dorset), coming from CALAIS with imported cloth bales. Transmitted by rats and fleas, the plague spread through southern counties and into the Midlands in 1348 and early 1349. After subsiding, it revived in March 1349 and advanced through northern England. All communities and social groups suffered, though to varying extents. Probably over 2 million people died out of 5 million. A second outbreak in 1361–2 killed about 1 million.

The population fall had far‐reaching social and economic consequences. Labour shortages caused wage rises and internal migration. Lords could not enforce LABOUR SERVICES, and eventually leased their directly managed lands (‘demesnes’) to tenants (see MANOR). Statutes to protect lords’ interests caused unrest (see LABOURERS, ORDINANCE AND STATUTE OF), culminating in the PEASANTS’ REVOLT. See also PLAGUE, ENGLAND.

BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON IRELANDThe plague reportedly arrived via the east‐coast port of Howth (Co. Dublin) in July 1348. It spread quickly to DUBLIN and Drogheda and across the country. According to the Franciscan friar John Clyn, Dublin and other Anglo‐Irish towns became almost uninhabited. Archbishop Richard FITZRALPH claimed that two‐thirds of the Anglo‐Irish population were killed, but that Gaelic Irish were less affected. The plague hastened the shrinkage of the English colony as inhabitants moved to towns or England. See also PLAGUE, IRELAND; IRELAND, ENGLISH COLONY IN, 13TH–15TH CENTURIES.BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON SCOTLAND

The plague arrived from England in autumn 1349 and spread through 1350. Although it made the most savage cut of population in Scottish history, chroniclers' claims that a third perished may imply lower mortality than elsewhere in Britain. Few MAGNATES died. As elsewhere, plague returned several times later in the 14th century.

The long‐term consequence was to reduce the population by over a half, creating a new relationship between population and resources. Its effects included shortage of labour, more livestock farming, falls in rents, larger landholdings, and leasing of lords' demesnes (see MANOR). Population recovery, however, was probably under way by the mid 15th century, significantly earlier than in England. See also PLAGUE, SCOTLAND; POPULATION, SCOTLAND.

BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON WALES

The plague entered SE Wales by March 1349, reached CARMARTHEN, SW Wales, by sea by late March and swept through the Anglo‐Welsh border country to NE Wales by June. Dispersal continued until the autumn. Perhaps a third of the population was killed.

Afterwards, migration to find good‐quality vacant land accelerated the decline of native tenures (see TENURES, WALES). The 1349 and later plagues (e.g., 1361–2, 1369) encouraged contraction of arable farming and expansion of sheep farming. See also PLAGUE, WALES; AGRICULTURE, WALES BEFORE 18TH CENTURY.

BLACK DINNERsee JAMES IIBLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTAName used for a notorious incident in INDIA in 1756. After the nawab (ruler) of Bengal, Siraj‐ud‐Daulah, seized control of CALCUTTA (a British headquarters in NE India) on 20 June, captives were imprisoned in a small cell (the ‘Black Hole’). By the following morning, most had died by suffocation or heat exhaustion. The incident was reported in Great Britain as evidence of Indian brutality. The numbers involved are uncertain: 60–200 were incarcerated, 40–140 died. See also CLIVE, ROBERT.BLACK PRINCEsee EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCEBLACKSTONE, WILLIAM(b. 10 July 1723 at London, England; d. 14 Feb. 1780 at London, aged 56). An unsuccessful barrister, Blackstone instead lectured on English law at OXFORD University from 1753 (also Vinerian professor of law 1758–66). He was elected an MP in 1761 and became a judge in 1770 (also knighted). Blackstone is famous for his Commentaries on the Laws of England (4 volumes, 1765–9), an elegant, systematic exposition aimed at laymen which was influential in England and N America for over a century.BLACK WATCHA distinguished Scottish regiment in the British ARMY, which was authorized by King GEORGE II in 1739; it was constituted from six Highland Companies of Foot (formed from 1725) and four new companies. The original companies represented attempts to secure the support of loyal HIGHLAND clans following the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1715. During the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1745, the regiment was stationed in S England for fear of unreliability. Its name, originally a nickname, referred to the dark tartan worn by soldiers and their role of watching the Highlands. In 2006 the regiment was amalgamated with other units as the Royal Regiment of Scotland.BLACK WEDNESDAYNickname for Wednesday 16 Sept. 1992 when the British Conservative government was compelled to withdraw sterling from the European Economic Community’s EXCHANGE RATE MECHANISM (ERM). During the day, speculators’ currency sales forced the government to raise the base interest rate from 10% to 12%, and declare a rise to 15%, to protect sterling’s ERM value. These actions failed; at 7.30 pm the chancellor of the Exchequer, Norman Lamont, announced withdrawal. The humiliation damaged the Conservatives’ reputation for financial management and the premiership of John MAJOR. See also EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY/EUROPEAN UNION, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.BLAIR, TONY

(b. 6 May 1953 at Edinburgh, Scotland). Leader of the LABOUR PARTY 1994–2007; British prime minister 1997–2007.

A barrister and MP (1983–2007), Blair became Party leader with acquiescence from rival Gordon BROWN (see GRANITA ACCORD). With Alastair CAMPBELL and Peter MANDELSON, he ‘modernized’ Labour as NEW LABOUR with centrist policies (e.g., abandoning NATIONALIZATION, 1995) and won an unprecedented three general elections for Labour (1997, 2001, 2005). Brown, as chancellor of the Exchequer, received extensive authority in domestic policy.

Blair implemented DEVOLUTION in Scotland and Wales (1997–9), achieved a peace settlement for Northern Ireland (1998; see BELFAST AGREEMENT), reinstated city‐wide government in LONDON (1999–2000), and removed most hereditary peers from the House of Lords (1999). He pursued an interventionist foreign policy (see KOSOVO WAR; SIERRA LEONE). His government sought ‘modernization’ of public services and encouraged IMMIGRATION.

In Blair’s second term, he controversially committed military support to US‐led campaigns in AFGHANISTAN (from 2001) and Iraq (from 2003). Domestic developments included legal civil partnerships for same‐sex couples (2004).

Involvement in Iraq damaged Blair’s popularity and authority. On 7 Sept. 2006, under pressure from Brown’s supporters, he announced a resignation plan. He was succeeded by Brown in June 2007.

BLENKINSOP, JOHN(b. 1783 at Felling, Co. Durham, England; d. 22 Jan. 1831 at Leeds, aged 47). A supervisor of coal mines, Blenkinsop experimented with steam engines. In 1812–13 he built four two‐cylinder railway locomotives, which hauled coal waggons along tooth‐racked cast‐iron rails from Middleton colliery to LEEDS (to loading staithes on the R. Aire). It was the world’s first practical, commercial steam‐powered railway system. The locomotives operated until 1835. Blenkinsop’s work influenced George STEPHENSON. See also RAILWAYS, ENGLAND.BLIGH, WILLIAM

(b. 9 Sept. 1754 at Plymouth, Devon, England; d. 7 Dec. 1817 at London, England, aged 63). A career sailor in the British NAVY, Bligh suffered a mutiny (cause unknown) on 28 April 1789 as captain of HMS Bounty. He and 18 others were put adrift in a longboat in the Pacific. They eventually reached Timor (14 June). Bligh was afterwards exonerated of blame for the mutiny.

Bligh’s crews also participated in the Spithead and Nore munities in England (1797). As governor of NEW SOUTH WALES (from 1805), he was deposed in 1808 by the ‘Rum Rebellion’ (reaction to his attempt to suppress illegal rum trading). He returned to England in 1810.

BLITZNickname used by people in Great Britain and Northern Ireland in WORLD WAR II for German large‐scale bombing: of LONDON (Sept. 1940–May 1941) and of provincial towns (Oct. 1940–Sept. 1941); also for the ‘Little Blitz’ on London, southern England and some other places (Jan.–April 1944). The press derived it from the German Blitzkrieg, meaning ‘lightning war’ (referring to fast‐moving warfare using motorized land forces and air support). See also EVACUATION, WORLD WAR II.BLOODY ASSIZESIn England, name for trials of participants in MONMOUTH’S REBELLION, 1685. The presiding judge was Lord Jeffreys (George Jeffreys, 1645–89), lord chief justice. The trials took place from 2 to 23 Sept. at WINCHESTER (Hampshire) and in Somerset and Dorset. About 1300 people were tried; about 250 were executed and at least 850 were transported abroad. (Monmouth was executed in London.)BLOODY SUNDAY (1920)Name applied to the most murderous day during the War of IRISH INDEPENDENCE, 21 Nov. 1920. In the morning, in DUBLIN, members of the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY, commanded by Michael COLLINS, killed 14 British intelligence agents. In the afternoon, at a Gaelic football match, police reinforcements (so‐called ‘Auxiliaries'), allegedly searching for a wanted man, opened fire, killing 12.BLOODY SUNDAY (1972)

Popular name for the day (30 Jan.), during the TROUBLES in Northern Ireland, when British Army soldiers shot dead 13 participants at an illegal march in LONDONDERRY (against internment of suspected terrorists). Another victim died later. The incident discredited British security forces, increased recruitment to the PROVISIONAL IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY, and persuaded the British prime minister Edward HEATH to introduce ‘direct rule' of Northern Ireland (24 March).

An official report on the event (‘Widgery Report’), published in April 1972, relied mainly on the soldiers’ evidence and largely exonerated them, creating long‐lasting resentment. In Jan. 1998 Tony BLAIR established a new inquiry as part of the Northern Ireland PEACE PROCESS. Its outcome, the ‘Saville Report’ published in 2010 (costing £191 million), concluded that victims had been unarmed and their deaths unjustifiable. Prime Minister David CAMERON made a public apology for the deaths. See also NORTHERN IRELAND.

BLOOMSBURY GROUPA small group of influential English writers and artists who met informally at homes in the Bloomsbury district of LONDON between c.1907 and c.1930. Principal members were: novelists Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), E.M. Forster (1879–1970); art critics Clive Bell (1881–1964), Roger Fry (1866–1934); painters Vanessa Bell (1879–1961), Duncan Grant (1885–1978); biographer Lytton Strachey (1880–1932); political theorist Leonard Woolf (1880–1969); economist J.M. KEYNES (1883–1946). They combined serious concern for artistic and philosophical principles with irreverence towards personal morality.BLOUNT, CHARLESsee MOUNTJOY, LORDBLUE BOOKS, TREACHERY OF THEsee EDUCATION IN WALES, INQUIRY INTOBLUESHIRTSsee ARMY COMRADES’ ASSOCIATION; FASCISM, SOUTHERN IRELANDBOADICEAsee BOUDICCABODICHON, BARBARA(b. 8 April 1827 at Whatlington, Sussex, England; d. 11 June 1891 at Scalands Gate, Sussex, aged 64). Barbara Leigh Smith, an independent writer and painter, campaigned from 1854 for reform of property law relating to women and other rights. In 1857, when leader of the LANGHAM PLACE CIRCLE, she published Women and Work and married French physician Eugène Bodichon. Thereafter she divided her time between Algiers and England (until 1877). She co‐founded the English Woman’s Journal (1858–64) with Bessie Rayner Parkes, and helped Emily Davies to found the College for Women at Hitchin in 1869 (near CAMBRIDGE from 1873, as Girton College). See also WOMEN’S MOVEMENT 1850S TO 1918, GREAT BRITAIN.BOER WAR, FIRSTsee SOUTH AFRICABOER WAR OR SECOND BOER WAR

A conflict in southern Africa between British forces and the Boer‐ruled Transvaal (or South African Republic) and Orange Free State, 1899–1902, provoked by British expansionism. In the late 1890s, Joseph CHAMBERLAIN, the British colonial secretary, and Alfred MILNER in southern Africa, pressurized Paul Kruger, the Transvaal’s president, to enfranchise uitlanders (British and other immigrants in Transvaal). In response, Kruger demanded withdrawal of British troops from the region (9 Oct. 1899). His ultimatum was rejected.

The ensuing war had three phases. The first, from 11 Oct. 1899 to Jan. 1900, saw Boer incursions into British territory, with sieges of Ladysmith, Kimberley and MAFEKING, and heavy British losses in the ‘Black Week’ of Dec. 1899. Great Britain sent reinforcements, with Lord ROBERTS as the new supreme commander.

In the second phase, Feb.–Aug. 1900, Roberts launched counter‐offensives, raising the sieges, defeating the Boers at Paardeburg (27 Feb.) and capturing the Transvaal capital Pretoria (5 June). Britain annexed the Orange Free State (24 May) and Transvaal (1 Sept.).

Finally, from Nov. 1900, there was guerrilla warfare, to which Lord KITCHENER (new British commander) responded by destroying Boer farms and interning occupants in concentration camps. Boer resistance ended in May 1902 (see VEREENIGING, TREATY OF).

About 22,000 British troops died (two‐thirds from disease and illness), at least 25,000 Boers (most in concentration camps), and 12,000 Africans. The war also had profound consequences for British society, provoking debates about Army reform, social welfare and the morality of imperial rule. See also SOUTH AFRICA; NATIONAL DETERIORATION; ESHER, 2ND VISCOUNT; HALDANE, R.B.

BOHUN FAMILY

A noble family prominent in England from the mid 12th century; they were important in the MARCH OF WALES 1241–1373 through the marriage of Humphrey of Bohun (d. 1265) to Eleanor, daughter of William de BRAOSE (d. 1230). Eleanor inherited (1241) lordships of Brecon and Hay (C Wales) and Haverfordwest (SW Wales).

In the reign of King EDWARD II of England (1307–27), Humphrey de Bohun (c.1276–1322) opposed PIERS GAVESTON and the DESPENSERS. Humphrey de Bohun (1342–73) died without a male heir.

BOLEYN, ANNE

(b. c.1500, probably at Blickling, Norfolk, England; d. 19 May 1536 at London, England, aged about 36). A courtier’s daughter, Anne was courted by King HENRY VIII from 1526 although he was married to KATHERINE OF ARAGON. (Divorce proceedings began in April 1527; see GREAT MATTER.) Anne was created marchioness of Pembroke in Sept. 1532. She slept with Henry from Nov. and became pregnant. They were married secretly on 25 Jan. 1533 (marriage publicized at Easter, Anne crowned 1 June). On 7 Sept. Anne gave birth to a daughter (see ELIZABETH I). At court Anne sponsored evangelical clergy and writers.

Anne’s failure to produce a male heir disenchanted Henry. She was imprisoned for treasonable adultery (2 May 1536). Her marriage was declared invalid (17 May) and she was executed. See also HENRY VIII, WIVES OF; BROWNE, GEORGE.

BOLINGBROKE, VISCOUNT

(b. 16 Sept. 1678, probably at Lydiard Tregoze, Wiltshire, England; d. 12 Dec. 1751 at Battersea, Surrey, England, aged 73). An MP from 1701 and a TORY, Henry St John collaborated with Robert HARLEY. He was secretary at war 1704–8 and SECRETARY OF STATE from 1710. From 1711 he supervised negotiations with France which resulted in the Peace of UTRECHT (1713), ending the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION. He was created Viscount Bolingbroke in 1712. Like other Tories, Bolingbroke became dissatisfied with Harley (see OCTOBER CLUB). In 1714 he persuaded Queen ANNE to dismiss Harley, but the earl of SHREWSBURY succeeded as leading minister.

In Aug. 1714 Bolingbroke was dismissed by the pro‐WHIG King GEORGE I. Fearful that Whigs would seek his execution for Jacobite plotting, he fled to France and served the Jacobite claimant as secretary of state (1715–16). Allowed to return in 1723, he became an opponent of Robert WALPOLE, notably attacking his Excise Bill (1733). See also JACOBITISM, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS; EXCISE CRISIS; WYNDHAM, WILLIAM.

BONDFIELD, MARGARET(b. 17 March 1873 at Chard, Somerset, England; d. 16 June 1953 at Sanderstead, Surrey, England, aged 80). A shopworker from 1887, Bondfield became involved in trade unionism. She was the first woman chairman of the TRADES UNION CONGRESS (1923) and a LABOUR PARTY MP 1923–4, 1926–31. In 1924 she became the first woman minister in a British government (as parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Labour), and from 1929 the first woman CABINET member (as minister of labour) and privy councillor. In both instances, she served under Ramsay MAC DONALD. In 1931 she refused to join his NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.BONIFACE

(b. early 670s in Wessex; d. 5 June 754 near Dokkum, Frisia, aged about 80). Responding to a missionary vocation, the monk Wynfrith lived in Frisia (modern Netherlands) in 716. In 719 the Pope commissioned him to evangelize pagans and named him Boniface. He worked with WILLIBRORD in Frisia (719–21). In 722, while revisiting Rome, he was made bishop and authorized to preach E of the R. Rhine (eastern Francia). He founded monasteries and churches, and recruited assistants from England.

In 732 Boniface was appointed archbishop. He reorganized dioceses in Bavaria (739), founded new bishoprics to the N (741–2), and founded Fulda monastery. Around 746 he adopted Mainz (in modern Germany) as his see. After resigning (753), he returned to Frisia, where he was martyred (buried at Fulda). See also LEOBA; MISSIONS TO CONTINENTAL EUROPE, ANGLO‐SAXON.

BONNER, EDMUND

(b. probably at Hanley, Worcestershire, England; d. 5 Sept. 1569 at London, England). Bonner, a clergyman, served King HENRY VIII as a diplomat (late 1520s–1540s). He accepted Henry’s supremacy in the English Church (confirmed 1534). He was appointed bishop of Hereford (1538), then of London (1539). But during the reign of EDWARD VI (1547–53) Bonner resisted Protestant reforms. He was imprisoned and deprived of his bishopric (Oct. 1550).

Restored as bishop by MARY I (Aug. 1553), Bonner promoted Catholicism and combated heresy in his diocese – 113 heretics were burnt (1555–8). After the accession of ELIZABETH I (1558), Bonner refused to acknowledge her supremacy in the Church. He was again deprived (May 1559) and later imprisoned (1560). See also REFORMATION, ENGLAND.

BOOKLANDIn Anglo‐Saxon England, land held by written CHARTER or ‘book' (OE bocland). Unlike other land, bookland was given (e.g., by kings) with freedom to alienate (by grant, sale or bequest). Kin had no entitlement to inherit. Bookland tenure was introduced in the 7th century to endow MINSTER churches. From the late 8th century, senior lay people also held (and alienated) bookland. Bookland was replaced by new tenures in the late 11th century. See also TENURES, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066; THREE PUBLIC SERVICES.BOOK OF ORDERSIn England and Wales, instructions issued Jan. 1631 by the PRIVY COUNCIL to JUSTICES OF THE PEACE requiring quarterly reports about the administration of laws relating to the poor. Although the Book arose from short‐term problems (e.g., grain shortage), and did not represent the policy of THOROUGH, it reflected the concern of Charles I for maintaining social harmony and avoiding disorder. See also CHARLES I, PERSONAL RULE.BOOT, JESSE(b. 2 June 1850 at Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, England; d. 13 June 1931 at Vallée, Jersey, Channel Islands, aged 81). Boot became a medical herbalist and, facing competition from new patent medicines, from 1877 sold medical products in quantity at reduced prices. From 1883 he developed a retail business that employed pharmacists and sold other products (e.g., books, stationery). His company manufactured medical products from 1892. By 1914 Boot’s company had 560 outlets, including DEPARTMENT STORES. Boot sold a controlling interest in 1920. He was created a knight (1909), a baronet (1916) and Lord Trent (1928).BOOTH, CHARLES(b. 30 March 1840 at Liverpool, Lancashire, England; d. 23 Nov. 1916 at Gracedieu Manor, Leicestershire, England, aged 76). Sociologist. Booth, a businessman involved in shipping, became disenchanted with politics and religion. Influenced by positivism from the 1860s, he studied the lives of the poor in LONDON from 1887, including employment, poverty and religious influences. His investigations, published in Life and Labour of the People in London (17 volumes, 1889–1902), demonstrated that about a third of Londoners lived in poverty. From these, he argued for old age PENSIONS and TARIFF REFORM. See also NATIONAL DETERIORATION.BOOTH FAMILYThe English family which developed the SALVATION ARMY. William Booth (1829–1912) was active in Wesleyan METHODISM from the 1840s. In 1865 he founded the independent East London Christian Mission, which established ‘stations’ elsewhere. The organization was renamed the Salvation Army in 1879, with Booth as ‘general’. Booth’s wife Catherine (1829–90) conducted mission services from 1860 and campaigned for the PURITY MOVEMENT. Their son Bramwell Booth (1856–1929) was involved in his parents’ work from 1870, becoming chief organizer of the Army from 1881, general from 1912. His sister Evangeline Cory Booth (1865–1950) led the Army in the USA from 1904 and was general 1934–9. His daughter Catherine Bramwell‐Booth (1883–1987) was in charge of Army social work among women in Great Britain 1926–46. Other family members were also Salvationists.BORDER, ANGLO‐SCOTTISH

The historical border between England and Scotland follows natural features, running (NE–SW) along the R. Tweed and across the Cheviot Hills to the Solway Firth. First established in the later 11th century, and more firmly from the mid 12th century, it represents the line at which England finally halted southward expansion by the kingdom of Scotland. (There is no compelling natural border across N Britain.)

Scotland originated in the UNION OF SCOTS AND PICTS from c.842. Their kingdom (called ‘Alba’ meaning ‘Britain’ from c.900, ‘Scotland’ from the 11th century) was mostly N of the FORTH–CLYDE ISTHMUS. To the SE, it abutted the Anglian (English) kingdom of NORTHUMBRIA, and to the SW the British kingdom of STRATHCLYDE. In the 10th or 11th century (probably by 1026), Alba/Scotland acquired the LOTHIAN part of Northumbria, extending to the R. Tweed. From 1018 it had authority over Strathclyde (including Cumbria in modern NW England).

In 1092, King WILLIAM II of England seized the southern part of former Strathclyde, pushing the border back northwards, to the Solway Firth (see CARLISLE). Scottish expansionist ambitions nonetheless continued. King DAVID I regained former southern Strathclyde in 1136, obtained NE England in 1139, and from 1141 ruled southwards to a line from the R. Tees to the R. Ribble. In 1157, however, HENRY II of England forced MALCOLM IV to surrender N England, restoring the Tweed–Solway line.

The border remained largely unchanged (see BERWICK‐UPON‐TWEED), though Scottish claims were maintained until 1237 (abandoned in treaty of York). Local cross‐border relations fell under special laws (codified 1249 as the ‘Laws of the Marches').

The border area remained turbulent in the 14th–16th centuries, often with recurrent warfare. Conditions became peaceful with the UNION OF CROWNS (1603). Following the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707), the border ceased to be an international boundary, becoming an internal border of GREAT BRITAIN. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS; RAIDING, CROSS-BORDER; COUNCIL OF THE NORTH.

BORDER, ANGLO‐WELSH

W Britain (WALES) was severed from direct land contact with other British areas by Germanic (English) kingdoms probably in the early 7th century. Soon afterwards, the advance of the English kingdom of MERCIA against the Welsh kingdom of POWYS pushed the border back to a N–S line between the Dee and Severn estuaries, which was roughly marked from the late 8th century by OFFA'S DYKE. For over 400 years, political and settlement borders fluctuated around that axis (from the mid 10th century dividing the Welsh kingdoms from a united England).

English settlement moved W even after construction of the dyke; English lived around Radnor (C Wales) by the late 10th century, and in NE Wales before 1066. Though NORMANS invaded Wales from the late 11th century, the lordships they founded, constituting the MARCH OF WALES, were treated as territories within Wales.

BORDER COMMISSIONSIn the 14th–16th centuries, disorder was endemic in the Anglo‐Scottish border country, with cross‐border raids for cattle thieving. After the UNION OF CROWNS (1603), both sides came under King JAMES VI/I, who appointed ten border commissioners (five Scots, five English) to administer justice (1605). By often brutal means, they largely pacified the area. The commission was renewed in 1618 but disbanded in 1621. Disorder revived, prompting CHARLES I to establish new commissions (1630, 1635). See also BORDER, ANGLO‐SCOTTISH; RAIDING, CROSS‐BORDER.BORNEO

An island in SE Asia within which Great Britain acquired territories. In 1842 the sultan of Brunei in N Borneo gave the Sarawak River area (later named Kuching) to the Englishman James Brooke, inaugurating rule by members of the BROOKE FAMILY (to 1946). It was extended by further grants between 1846 and 1905. The territory was known as Sarawak.

In 1880 the Englishman Alfred Dent acquired an existing foreign jurisdiction in part of NE Borneo, called North Borneo. It was governed from 1882 by Dent’s BRITISH NORTH BORNEO COMPANY.

Both territories, together with Brunei, were made British PROTECTORATES in 1888. Timber and rubber were exported. Approx. total population in 1921: 1,846,000. Sarawak and Brunei were occupied by Japan 1941–5, North Borneo 1942–5. Sarawak and North Borneo became CROWN COLONIES in 1946, and joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, when British forces helped to defend them from Indonesia. (North Borneo was renamed Sabah.) Brunei was granted internal self‐government in 1971 and independence as a sultanate in 1983.

BOROUGH

A settlement, usually a TOWN, where some inhabitants enjoy particular rights, privileges or liberties. Some were personal, such as the right to sell or bequeath property; others were corporate, such as the right to elect officers and administer the town. The term is derived from OE burh, which originally referred to a fortified centre.

By the mid 11th century, larger BURHS (in England) probably had courts and customs. During the 12th and 13th centuries, kings granted charters of liberties to many English towns, especially larger ones, often including confirmation of existing customs and self‐government (e.g., to OXFORD, c.1155). Lords also founded, and granted varying liberties to, numerous small towns (e.g., Maurice de Gant to LEEDS, 1207), which historians sometimes designate as ‘seigneurial boroughs’. From the 13th century, some boroughs were represented in PARLIAMENT, and are often designated ‘parliamentary boroughs’ by historians. Boroughs sometimes received extensive legal rights from the mid 14th century and are regarded as ‘incorporated boroughs’, while from the late 14th century a few towns received county status, becoming ‘county boroughs’ (see INCORPORATION OF BOROUGHS). Kings and lords created boroughs in Wales (from late 11th century) and Ireland (from late 12th century), following invasions; similar developments occurred in Scotland (see BURGH).

The organization of TOWN GOVERNMENT – including the holding and definition of borough status and borough FRANCHISES – was controlled from the 19th century by the UK Parliament, and also from the 1920s by the parliaments in Ireland. See also GUILD; ROTTEN BOROUGH; LOCAL GOVERNMENT, NORTHERN IRELAND/SOUTHERN IRELAND.

BOSTON TEA PARTYA protest at Boston, MASSACHUSETTS (N America), on 16 Dec. 1773 when men disguised as Indians threw 342 chests of tea from three ships into the harbour. They were objecting to the British Tea Act (1773), which permitted the EAST INDIA COMPANY to send tea directly to British colonies. The Act threatened local mercantile interests because the Company’s tea would undercut their trade. The British Parliament responded with the INTOLERABLE ACTS. See also AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF.BOSWORTH, BATTLE OFFought on 22 Aug. 1485 about 3 mi (5 km) SW of Market Bosworth (Leicestershire, C England), between armies supporting King RICHARD III (YORKIST) and Henry Tudor, claimant to the throne (LANCASTRIAN). Richard was defeated and killed when Lord Stanley (Henry’s step‐father) and his brother Sir William Stanley intervened on Henry’s side. Henry succeeded as king (see HENRY VII). See also YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT; BEAUFORT, MARGARET; STANLEY FAMILY.BOTANY BAYAn inlet in SE Australia, on the coast of NEW SOUTH WALES, which was the original landing site in AUSTRALIA of James COOK (29 April 1770). Cook applied the name because of the diverse flora. It became associated with the TRANSPORTATION of British and Irish convicts, who first arrived there on 18 Jan. 1788, though the penal settlement was established at Sydney.BOTHA, LOUIS

(b. 27 Sept. 1862 near Greytown, Natal; d. 27 Aug. 1919 at Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa, aged 56). A Boer farmer, Botha was elected to the Parliament of Transvaal (or South African Republic) in 1897. During the (Second) BOER WAR he became commander‐in‐chief of Transvaal forces (1900), but in May 1902 advised peace making.

When Transvaal (now a British CROWN COLONY) was granted self‐government (1907), Botha became prime minister. He supported the proposed federal SOUTH AFRICA and served as its first prime minister (1910–19). During WORLD WAR I he suppressed the pro‐German Maritz Rebellion (1914–15) and occupied German South West Africa (1915, modern Namibia). Botha’s assertion of South African influence within the BRITISH EMPIRE alienated many Boers. See also SMUTS, JAN.

BOTHWELL, 4TH EARL OF(b. 1534 or 1535 in Scotland; d. 14 April 1578 at Drachsholm, Denmark, aged about 43). James Hepburn inherited his earldom in 1556. Although he adopted Protestantism before the REFORMATION (1560), he remained pro‐French and supported the Catholic MARY OF GUISE (regent 1554–9) and MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. He was suspected of involvement in the murder of her (second) husband, Lord DARNLEY (10 Feb. 1567). He then divorced his wife and married Mary (15 May 1567) but his enemies forced Mary to abandon him (and to abdicate). Bothwell fled to Orkney, then to Denmark where he died in prison. See also CONFEDERATE LORDS.BOTHWELL, 5TH EARL OF(b. Dec. 1562; d. April 1612 at Naples, Kingdom of Naples, aged 49). Francis Stewart, a grandson of King JAMES V, was recognized as earl of Bothwell in Nov. 1577, succeeding his uncle the 4th earl before his death. He rose to prominence following the RUTHVEN RAID (22 Aug. 1582). His pro‐English beliefs faltered after the execution of MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (Feb. 1587), and he rebelled alongside the northern earls in April 1589. Appointed assistant governor during JAMES VI's absence abroad (1589–90), he retained royal confidence until implicated in witchcraft by the North Berwick witch trials (Nov. 1590; imprisoned April–June 1591). Thereafter he attempted to recover favour through a series of armed confrontations with James (1591–4). In March 1595, having lost Protestant support, he went into exile in Continental Europe.BOTHWELL BRIG, BATTLE OFFought near Hamilton (S Scotland) on 22 June 1679. A Scottish government force, commanded by the duke of MONMOUTH, routed an army of COVENANTERS, killing 200–400 men. The battle was the culmination of the RISING OF 1679. Thereafter, support for Covenanting waned, leaving the CAMERONIANS as the main group of radical Covenanters.BOTSWANAsee BECHUANALANDBOUDICCA(d. 61 in C Britain). The last queen of the Iceni, a British tribe whose territory (modern Norfolk, E England) was absorbed into the province of ROMAN BRITAIN on the death of her husband King Prasutagus (60 or 61). Flogged by the Romans, who also raped her daughters, Boudicca (also known as Boadicea) led a rebellion (61) while the Roman governor, C. Suetonius Paulinus, was campaigning in W Britain (Wales). The rebels sacked Camulodunum (COLCHESTER), Londinium (LONDON) and Verulamium (ST ALBANS) before being defeated in battle by Paulinus, after which Boudicca took poison.BOULTER, HUGH(b. 4 Jan. 1672 at London, England; d. 27 Sept. 1742 at Westminster, Middlesex, England, aged 70). In 1724 Boulter, a bishop in England, was appointed (Church of Ireland) archbishop of ARMAGH and primate to strengthen British influence in Ireland during the WOOD'S HALFPENCE AFFAIR. (He sat on the Irish COUNCIL and in the Irish House of Lords.) From 1730 (recall of Governor CARTERET), he was the British government's main adviser on Irish policies. He supported ANTI‐CATHOLIC LEGISLATION, opposed Protestant demands for legislative independence (see PATRIOTS), and recommended English candidates for government and Church posts. Boulter also promoted education and charities, and contributed to relief during the 1740–1 famine. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY.BOULTON, MATTHEW

(b. 14 Sept. 1728 at Birmingham, Warwickshire, England; d. 17 Aug. 1809 at Handsworth, Warwickshire, aged 80). Boulton expanded his father's silver‐stamping business (in BIRMINGHAM), building the ‘Soho’ factory (finished 1766, at Handsworth, near Birmingham) and becoming the leading manufacturer in the W Midlands of ‘toys’ (small metal items such as buckles).

In 1768 Boulton met the Scottish inventor James WATT, and in 1773 he accepted a share in Watt’s patent for an improved steam engine. From 1775 their business manufactured engines, producing over 500 by 1800. They pioneered the application of steam power to a variety of industrial processes. See also INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION; LUNAR SOCIETY OF BIRMINGHAM.

BOUNDARY COMMISSIONA committee of three representatives, established in 1924 (under the 1921 ANGLO‐IRISH TREATY), to review and adjust the boundary between the Irish Free State (IFS) and Northern Ireland. Many politicians in the IFS expected the Commission to reduce Northern Ireland's size, possibly making it economically unviable. On 7 Nov. 1925 a British newspaper revealed that only minor changes were proposed, causing the Commission to collapse. (The IFS commissioner, Eoin MAC NEILL, and chairman resigned.) The British, IFS and Northern Ireland governments revoked the Commission (3 Dec.). The boundary remained unchanged. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF.BOW GROUPA discussion group within the British CONSERVATIVE PARTY which first met in Feb. 1951 at the Bow and Bromley Constitutional Club in the East End of London. Membership was originally restricted to university graduates aged under 36. Its influence on party thinking fluctuated, as did its own ideological complexion. Its chairmen included Geoffrey HOWE (1955–6).BOXER RISINGAn outbreak of violence against foreigners in China in 1900. With official connivance, the ‘Society of Harmonious Fists’ besieged European legations in Beijing from 19 June. Great Britain contributed to the international force which relieved them (14 Aug.), and sought to avoid this intervention precipitating partition of the Chinese Empire. See also CHINA, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.BOYCOTT, CHARLES(b. 12 March 1832 at Burgh St Peter, Norfolk, England; d. 19 June 1897 in Suffolk, England, aged 65). A land agent in Ireland (Co. Mayo) from 1873, Boycott suffered ostracism in 1880, at the behest of the LAND LEAGUE, for evicting tenants; for example, on 24 Sept. tenants refused to harvest crops under his management. He imported Orangemen volunteers from Ulster (N Ireland), who were protected by 1000 troops (12–26 Nov.). The case generated publicity and Boycott's name was immediately used to denote non‐violent intimidation. Boycott left Ireland in 1886. See also LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND; ORANGE ORDER, IRELAND.BOYLE, HENRY

(b. between 1681 and 1687 at Castlemartyr, Co. Cork, Ireland; d. 27 Dec. 1764 at Dublin, Ireland). A member of the Irish House of Commons from 1707, Boyle (a Whig) was elected speaker in Oct. 1733. To secure his support, the government appointed him to lucrative posts (e.g., chancellor of the Exchequer from Nov. 1733). He and his allies dominated the Commons until 1753 when they were challenged by allies of Archbishop George STONE. Boyle responded by allowing the defeat of a money Bill. The government retaliated by dismissing Boyle and others from their government posts (spring 1754).

In 1756 a new chief governor made a ‘peace' agreement: Boyle would retire as speaker, be created earl of Shannon, and receive a pension. Though now based in the House of Lords, he controlled the largest Commons faction until his death. See also UNDERTAKERS; MONEY BILL DISPUTE; PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY.

BOYLE, ROBERT(b. 25 Jan. 1627 at Lismore, Co. Waterford, Ireland; d. 30 Dec. 1691 at London, England, aged 64). Educated in England, Boyle travelled in Continental Europe 1639–44. On returning, he became involved with leading natural philosophers (scientists) and undertook research. Based in OXFORD 1654–68, and associated initially with the group of natural philosophers centred on Wadham College, Boyle studied the properties of air through experiments using an air pump, publishing his discoveries in New Experiments … (1660). A second edition (1662) included what became known as ‘Boyle’s Law’ – that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure on it – though it was discovered by an assistant, Richard Towneley. Boyle also advocated a ‘corpuscularist’ theory of matter (that matter is constituted from indivisible corpuscles). He was a founder of the ROYAL SOCIETY (1660). See also SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION.BOYNE, BATTLE OF THEMajor battle of the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), fought near the R. Boyne in Co. Meath (E Ireland), near Drogheda, on 1 July 1690. Protestant forces commanded by King WILLIAM III (English, Irish, Huguenots, Danish, Germans, totalling 36,000; ‘Williamites') defeated forces commanded by (the former king) James VII/II (Irish, French, mostly Catholics, totalling 25,000; ‘Jacobites'). Afterwards James fled abroad (4 July), while William took E Ireland. War continued for another year. See also JAMES VII/II AND IRELAND; ORANGE ORDER, IRELAND.BOYNE VALLEYsee BEND OF THE BOYNEBRACTONCommonly used name for the 13th‐century legal treatise On the Laws and Customs of England (written in Latin). It was named after its supposed author, the justice Henry of Bratton or Bracton (d. 1268). But much of the treatise was written by the mid 1230s when Bratton was young. The justice and bishop William of Raleigh (d. 1250), for whom Bratton worked as clerk, is the likely author. Bratton probably revised the work (1240s–50s) before it was circulated. The major concerns of Bracton are criminal and property law. See also LAW, ENGLAND FROM 1066.BRADLAUGH, CHARLES(b. 26 Sept. 1833 at London, England; d. 30 Jan. 1891 at London, aged 57). Propagandist for atheism, republicanism and BIRTH CONTROL. Elected a Liberal MP in 1880, Bradlaugh objected to swearing an oath on the Bible for admission to the UK House of Commons. Denied his request to affirm instead, he asked to take the oath but was refused. The FOURTH PARTY exploited his expulsion and repeated re‐election to embarrass W.E. GLADSTONE. Bradlaugh was permitted to take the oath and admitted in 1886. An Act to allow affirmation was passed in 1888.BRAOSE FAMILY

An important noble family in the MARCH OF WALES c.1165–1230, originally from NORMANDY (N France); they descended from Philip de Braose, who settled at Radnor (C Wales) by c.1095 (see BUILTH).

William Braose (d. perhaps 1175) acquired Brecon c.1165 by marriage; by the early 13th century his descendants had accumulated vast territories in SE Wales. Braose involvement ended with William Braose (d. 1230); succeeded by the BOHUN and MORTIMER families. See also JOHN.

BREADALBANE, 1ST EARL OF(b. c.1635 in Scotland; d. 19 March 1717 in Scotland, aged about 80). A powerful HIGHLAND chief (of the Campbell CLAN of Glenorchy) and presbyterian, John Campbell was granted titles in 1677 and made earl of Breadalbane in 1681. In 1689 he reluctantly supported the accession of William of Orange (see WILLIAM III). Afterwards, with Sir John DALRYMPLE, Breadalbane was required to obtain loyalty oaths from dissident chiefs. A consequence was the GLENCOE MASSACRE (1692), in which Breadalbane was implicated. In 1695 he was briefly imprisoned for suspected JACOBITISM. Breadalbane opposed the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707) but sat in the British House of Lords (1713–15). He contributed troops to the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1715, but escaped punishment on account of his age.BRÉAUTÉ, FALKES DE

(b. in Normandy; d. 1226 at Rome, Italy). Of obscure origin, de Bréauté was in the service of King JOHN in England by 1207. During John’s conflict with rebel barons in 1215–16, he was a commander of royalist forces (see MAGNA CARTA), and was rewarded with marriage to an earl’s widow, thereby gaining extensive estates.

After the accession of HENRY III, de Bréauté helped to defeat French and baronial forces at Lincoln (May 1217; see ENGLAND, FRENCH INVASION (1216–17)), and he remained a leading government officer. But in Dec. 1223, having made enemies, he agreed to resign his sheriffdoms and castles though he resisted loss of his estates. Having submitted to Henry (19 Aug. 1224), he went into overseas exile (Oct.).

BREDA, DECLARATION OFThe statement issued at Breda in the Dutch Republic on 4 April 1660 by CHARLES II, exiled king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Prepared at the suggestion of General MONCK, it was issued during elections in England and Wales to the CONVENTION PARLIAMENT. Charles, who was seeking to regain his thrones, promised conditional pardons to former enemies, settlement of pay arrears for the Army, that Parliament could resolve disputed land titles, and advocated religious liberty. The Declaration was read in Parliament on 1 May and encouraged the RESTORATION. See also CLARENDON, EARL OF.BREHONsee BREHON LAWBREHON LAW

Term used for Old Irish laws, which were written down from the 8th century in such tracts as Senchas Már (OIr., meaning ‘Great Tradition’); derived from OIr. brithem (‘brehon’ in English), meaning ‘judge’ or ‘jurist’. Law making and justice were usually the preserve of the brithemain, who comprised one of the LEARNED CLASSES. Although kings were not lawgivers, they could issue emergency provisions.

Ireland in effect lacked a concept of criminal law. All felonies and misdemeanours were civil offences. While certain laws dealt with such crimes as murder, assault and theft, they were concerned with the provision of compensation for a victim and his kin rather than punishment of criminals. Various tracts dealt with land, contracts and pledges, personal injuries, SOCIAL STRUCTURE, and FAMILY AND KINSHIP (including related obligations such as fosterage and marriage).

Although society was generally patriarchal, the laws accorded women considerable status. Women could not normally give legal witness, and could inherit only a life‐interest in property, but they had rights in marriage and divorce based on the property they had contributed to a marriage. Women were jointly responsible with their husbands for rearing children.

Despite reinterpretations, brehon law survived in Gaelic Irish areas, particularly ULSTER (N Ireland), until the end of the ‘Gaelic era’ (early 17th century). In 1920–2 revolutionary courts run by SINN FÉIN admitted citations from ‘early Irish law‐codes’, but the IRISH FREE STATE (founded 1922) in principle followed the English legal system.

BRÉIFNE

A kingdom in NW Ireland, between CONNACHT (W Ireland) and AIRGIALLA (N Ireland), created in the late 8th century by the Uí Briúin Bréifne dynasty from Connacht. By the 10th century they had expanded south‐eastwards (modern Co. Cavan); in the 12th century they governed part of MEATH (E Ireland). By then, their ruling family had adopted the surname Ua Ruairc (English, O'Rourke).

After the death of Tigernán Ua Ruairc (1172), the dynasty's power collapsed and Meath was taken by Anglo‐Normans (see LACY, HUGH DE). The remainder of Bréifne remained outside direct Anglo‐Norman control, but by the mid 13th century broke into two: W Bréifne (modern Co. Leitrim) under the O'Rourkes, E Bréifne (modern Co. Cavan) under the O'Reillys (Irish, Ó Ragallaig). Both dynasties survived until the late 16th century. Brian O'Rourke was hanged by the English in 1591 and his kingdom was later included in the ULSTER PLANTATION. See also MAC MURCHADA, DIARMAIT.

BRÉTIGNY, TREATY OFConcluded on 8 May 1360 at Brétigny (N France), between English and French representatives, ending the first phase of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The ransom for releasing King John II of France from English custody was reduced. John would cede lands and sovereignty in SW and N France, including the duchy of Aquitaine and CALAIS, to King EDWARD III of England. Edward would cede Normandy and Touraine, and renounce his claim to the French Crown. It was a poor outcome for Edward given his military dominance. The treaty was replaced (24 Oct.) by the treaty of Calais, which omitted John’s cession of sovereignty and Edward’s renunciation of his claim. See also GASCONY.BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENTSArrangements made in July 1944 by 44 Allied powers, including the UK (represented by J.M. KEYNES), at the United Nations International Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA. They created a monetary system, for implementation after WORLD WAR II, designed to provide stability: it involved fixed exchange rates based on the dollar and gold, an International Monetary Fund to provide liquidity, and a World Bank for longer‐term loans. Currency values could be changed only in exceptional circumstances. The pound sterling was devalued from $4.03 to $2.80 (1949), and to $2.40 (1967). The system collapsed from 1971 and currencies ‘floated’ (sterling from 23 June 1972).BREWING INDUSTRY, ENGLAND AND WALES

Ale‐brewing, with malted barley or oats, was undertaken widely in rural households until the 18th century. In towns, women brewed ale for sale. It was also brewed at alehouses and inns.

Beer‐brewing, using hops for flavouring and preservation, was introduced by German immigrants in the late 14th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries ‘common breweries’ (businesses usually run by men which sold to inns and individuals) were founded in towns, but LONDON remained the major centre until the 19th century. Around 1700 it produced a quarter of England’s beer, though there were prominent businesses elsewhere (e.g., Burton‐on‐Trent, Staffordshire, with high‐quality water). London brewers used coal instead of wood for heating from the 16th century, and coke from the mid 17th century.

In 1722 ‘porter’ (strong, dark beer) was invented near London. It was suitable for large‐scale production and kept well. For over 50 years several London breweries were the largest industrial businesses (e.g., Whitbread’s). From the 1820s ‘pale ale’ beer was popular and widely exported (e.g., to India).

The spread of RAILWAYS from the 1830s increased marketing areas. Brewing expanded notably at Burton‐on‐Trent (26 breweries by 1869). Specializing in ‘pale ale’, its production surpassed that of London. Brewing by retailers and public houses declined rapidly. In Wales, brewing expanded in industrial areas from the 1830s.

In the 20th century commercial breweries in England and Wales declined from over 3000 in 1900 to under 200 in 1980, with many Welsh brewers being absorbed by English companies. But a ‘Campaign for Real Ale’ later encouraged a growth of ‘microbreweries’ serving small areas.

BREWING INDUSTRY, IRELAND

Ale was widely brewed in rural households until at least the 17th century, when commercial beer‐brewing became established, using imported hops. Most breweries (probably over 1000 in 1700) were small and produced for direct retail sale. Large‐scale production was concentrated in DUBLIN.

By the 1770s breweries faced strong English competition. (Beer imports rose from 15,000 barrels in 1750 to 100,000 in 1792.) Some responded by expanding output, and by 1814 exports exceeded imports, though breweries declined (937 in 1790 to 247 in 1837).

Output continued to rise during the 19th century, with Dublin and CORK as primary centres and GUINNESS (Dublin), producing ‘stout’, predominant by 1840. Beer output trebled between the 1850s and 1914. By 1900 Dublin breweries produced about three‐quarters of total beer output, with two‐thirds of that brewed by Guinness. Forty per cent of production was exported, mostly by Guinness. Brewery numbers declined to 28 by 1914.

Guinness remained Ireland’s pre‐eminent brewer, also producing lager from 1952. In the early 21st century there were 16 breweries in the Republic of Ireland and three in Northern Ireland, and some new ‘microbreweries’.

BREWING INDUSTRY, SCOTLAND

References to brewing date from the 12th century onwards. By the 15th century domestic brewing was widespread, often carried out by women. Ale was the staple drink. By the 17th century commercial brewing was established in Lowland towns.

In the 18th century numerous large breweries were founded such as H. & R. Tennent (Glasgow, 1740) and William Younger (Leith, 1749), which also produced beer and soon superseded domestic production. They usually continued as family businesses. By c.1850 there were nearly 300 breweries. From the late 19th century Scotland produced light ales and lager. Exports were considerable between c.1850 and 1914.

By the 1990s takeovers had reduced numbers to a mere seven large brewers, though smaller breweries were also reappearing. By 2017 there were about 115 breweries, most operated by ‘craft’ brewers. Scottish beers have a more malty and less hoppy flavour than their English counterparts.

BREXIT

Shorthand term for ‘British Exit’ from the European Union (EU), coined in May 2012 by the British pro‐EU campaigner Peter Wilding by analogy with ‘Grexit’ (invented Feb. 2012 for a possible ‘Greek Exit’ from the euro currency). Originally considered hypothetical, Brexit became possible in 2015 when the UK’s (Conservative) government legislated for a referendum on membership, to negate electoral pressure from the anti‐EU UNITED KINGDOM INDEPENDENCE PARTY and anti‐EU sentiment within the Conservative Party by settling the issue. Prime Minister David CAMERON expected to win endorsement of membership.

The referendum (23 June 2016) produced a majority for ‘leave’ (52% to 48%), causing Cameron to resign. He was succeeded by Theresa MAY, previously a ‘remainer’. Notice of departure, authorized by Parliament, was served on the EU on 29 March 2017, to become effective two years later.

In June 2017 May held a general election to assist Brexit: she expected to strengthen her authority by increasing her House of Commons majority. The reverse happened. The majority was lost and May became reliant on support from DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST PARTY (DUP) MPs from NORTHERN IRELAND. Her withdrawal strategy (‘Chequers Plan’, July 2018) prompted two Cabinet ministers to resign (including Boris JOHNSON), and her withdrawal agreement with the EU was rejected three times by the Commons (Jan.–March 2019). It was opposed by many Conservatives for alleged excessive concessions, by the LABOUR PARTY Opposition mainly for party advantage, and by other parties (e.g., LIBERAL DEMOCRATS, SCOTTISH NATIONAL PARTY) because they opposed Brexit. DUP MPs and many Conservatives particularly resisted an ‘Irish backstop’, which might leave Northern Ireland indefinitely subject to EU regulations (to prevent a ‘hard border’ in Ireland). Brexit was eventually postponed to 31 Oct. Conservatives reacted to the impasse by pressurizing May into resignation.

May was replaced by ‘Brexiteer’ Boris Johnson (July). His willingness to countenance a ‘no deal’ departure was stymied by opponents in Parliament, who legislated (Sept.) for the prime minister to request a three‐month extension if Parliament had not accepted a deal or a no‐deal departure by 19 Oct. Although Johnson obtained a revised withdrawal agreement (17 Oct.), continuing opposition resulted in postponement of the UK’s departure. Conservative victory in a general election (12 Dec. 2019) enabled the UK to leave the EU on 31 Jan. 2020. See also ROYAL PREROGATIVE; EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY/EUROPEAN UNION, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.

BRIAN BÓRUMA (BRIAN BORU)

(b. c.941 at Béal Boru, Munster, S Ireland; d. 23 April 1014, Clontarf, Leinster, E Ireland, aged about 73). Brian succeeded as high‐king of the Dál Cais in MUNSTER in 976 and by 982 was Munster's high‐king. He then intermittently fought MÁEL SECHNAILL MAC DOMNAILL, high‐king of the Southern UÍ NÉILL (E Ireland) and of Ireland. By 996 Brian was dominant in S Ireland.

In 997 Brian pressurized Máel Sechnaill into sharing the high‐kingship (S Ireland to Brian), and in 1002 obtained Máel Sechnaill's submission, ending Uí Néill monopoly of the high‐kingship. Brian then campaigned in N Ireland, securing widespread recognition as high‐king by 1011. In 1012 Leinstermen and their Scandinavian allies began to rebel. Brian defeated them at CLONTARF in 1014, but was then killed. In the late 11th century his descendants adopted his name as their surname; see O'BRIEN FAMILY.

BRIDEI SON OF BELI(fl. from 671; d. 692, probably in N Britain). From 671 Bridei ruled the northern Pictish kingdom of FORTRIU (in modern NE Scotland), and is the first to be named as its king (in Irish sources). But he was an outsider; his family was southern Pictish (probably from Fife), his father was a king in Brittonic STRATHCLYDE, and his mother was a daughter of King EDWIN of Northumbria. Through her, he was a cousin of the dominant Northumbrian king EGFRITH, who controlled southern Pictland and probably installed Bridei as a puppet in northern Pictland. But Mercians defeated Egfrith in 679, and thereafter Bridei exerted his own power, devastating the ORKNEY ISLANDS (681) and capturing strongholds in southern Pictland. Egfrith reacted by leading an army north in 685, but was defeated and killed probably near (modern) Forfar (see DÚN NECHTAIN, BATTLE OF). That ended Northumbrian power north of the R. Forth, and enabled Bridei to dominate both northern and southern Pictland. See also PICTS; KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.BRIDEI SON OF DER‐ILEI(fl. from 696; d. 707, probably in N Britain). From 696 Bridei ruled FORTRIU and the other Pictish areas, thus creating a unified Pictish realm stretching S to the FORTH–CLYDE ISTHMUS. His right to the kingship came from his Pictish mother Der‐Ilei; his father was from Scottish (i.e., Irish) Argyll, which helped him have good relations with DÁL RIATA. Moreover, after 698, when he defeated a Northumbrian effort to reverse the takeover of southern Pictland, he also established good relations with Aldfrith, king of NORTHUMBRIA. The most striking aspect of his reign, however, is his relationship with IONA (where Aldfrith had been a monk). Working with Abbot ADOMNÁN (biographer of Columba), and with Aldfrith’s encouragement, he brought previously independent religious settlements scattered across Pictland into a much more episcopal structure under Ionan primacy. See also PICTS.BRIDEI SON OF MAILCON(fl. from c.556; d. 586, probably in N Britain). A king of PICTS from c.556, Bridei’s power base appears to have been the former Verturiones tribe (see FORTRIU), whose heartland was in the coastal region from the inner Moray Firth to the R. Don (in NE of modern Scotland); but his sway probably stretched across the central and northern Highlands, and also the ORKNEY ISLANDS (which suggests he had naval resources). Early in his reign (c.558) he defeated a force of SCOTS (Irish) from (Scottish) DÁL RIATA. Later, he was visited by the Irish monk COLUMBA (from IONA monastery, founded 563), at a stronghold in or near either (modern) Inverness or Dunkeld. After initial hostility, Bridei eventually treated Columba with honour, but seems not to have espoused Christianity. See also KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.BRIDGEWATER, 3RD DUKE OF(b. 21 May 1736, probably at Westminster, Middlesex, England; d. 8 March 1803 at Westminster, aged 66). Francis Egerton inherited his dukedom in 1748. From 1755, after seeing the Languedoc Canal in France and studying engineering, he planned a canal to exploit his coalmines at Worsley (Lancashire). He obtained Acts of Parliament in 1759, 1760 and 1762. Under the second he built a canal to MANCHESTER (engineered by James Brindley), the first ‘arterial canal’ to be built in England for many centuries. Successfully operating by the early 1760s, this encouraged his further investment in canal‐building. See also CANALS, ENGLAND.BRIGANTESsee CARTIMANDUA; VENUTIUSBRIGHT, JOHN(b.16 Nov. 1811 at Rochdale, Lancashire, England; d. 27 March 1889 at Rochdale, aged 77). Bright, a Quaker cotton mill‐owner, was chief orator of the ANTI‐CORN LAW LEAGUE (1839–46). A Radical MP from 1843, he opposed the CRIMEAN WAR (1854–6); later he campaigned for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM, before holding office under W.E. GLADSTONE (president of the Board of Trade 1868–70, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 1873–4, 1880–2).BRIGIT(fl. in possibly early 6th century in Ireland). By the mid 7th century Brigit was claimed as the founder of a church and monastery at KILDARE (E Ireland). Her historical existence is doubtful; her cult may have started as the Christianization of devotion to a pagan goddess of the same name. Brigit nevertheless became the most popular saint in Ireland after PATRICK. See also CONVERSION OF IRELAND.BRISTOL

A city, port and unitary authority in SW England, at the confluence of the Rivers Avon and Frome.

A town was founded by the 10th century. Its name means ‘Place by the bridge’. Bristol has been important for trade and communications with Ireland. In the 14th–16th centuries it was also a substantial centre of the CLOTH INDUSTRY. Divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset, Bristol was the first English town to receive county status (1373). England’s exploration of N America started from Bristol in 1497 (see CABOT, JOHN). It was a bishop’s see from 1542 (except for 1836–96; joined with Gloucester).

Bristol expanded enormously from the late 17th century with the development of trade with the WEST INDIES, NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES and WEST AFRICA (notably the SLAVE TRADE). During the 18th century it superseded NORWICH as the largest and wealthiest city after London. The first METHODIST chapel opened there in 1739. Although Bristol was disadvantaged by the rise of LIVERPOOL and abolition of the slave trade (1807), it continued to process sugar and tobacco, and manufacture chocolate. It was assisted from 1841 by a RAILWAY to London.

Foreign trade diminished after WORLD WAR II (1939–45), but Bristol remained an important industrial and financial centre. It gained two universities (both by upgrading): Bristol University (1909), University of the West of England (1992).

Est. popn: 1086, 4000; 1300, 12,000; 1600, 12,000; 1800, 64,000; 1900, 330,000; 2000, 635,000.

BRITAIN

The largest island within the BRITISH ISLES, about 570 mi (920 km) in length (N–S). Continuously inhabited from c.11,000 BC, it finally became separate from Continental Europe between 5800 and 5400 BC (see GLACIATIONS). Inhabitants adopted Brittonic (or Common Brittonic) language in the 1st millennium BC.

The island’s Brittonic name was probably Albion, meaning ‘The land’ or ‘Mainland’. Britain is recorded in the 1st century BC as Prettanike (Greek), and as Brettania or Britannia (Latin), meaning ‘Land of the Prettanoi’ or ‘Pretani’ or ‘Britanni’, i.e., ‘painted ones’, similar to the later PICTS. (‘Pretani’ was probably the Brittonic name for its inhabitants.) The island was later known in OE as Bryten. ‘Britain’ is derived from OFr., Bretaigne.

Britain was also known as Great Britain (in Greek) from the 2nd century AD, to distinguish it from Little Britain (Ireland). From the 12th century, the name differentiated Britain from Brittany in France (Lesser Britain).

Following eleven millennia with varying cultures (see PREHISTORIC BRITAIN), over half of southern Britain was ruled by Romans (1st–5th centuries AD; see ROMAN BRITAIN). British kingdoms emerged to the N.

GERMANIC SETTLEMENT (5th–6th centuries) changed British culture in much of southern Britain to Germanic (or ‘Anglo‐Saxon’) culture (e.g., language). Germanic rulers displaced British kingdoms. The main exception was W Britain (modern Wales). In N Britain, immigration introduced Irish rule and culture (see DÁL RIATA). Britain was disrupted by VIKINGS (8th–9th centuries).

N Britain became a single large kingdom in the 9th–11th centuries (see SCOTLAND), and much of S Britain in the 10th century (see ENGLAND, FORMATION OF). W Britain was taken under English rule in the 11th–13th centuries and annexed in 1536 (see WALES). Union of England and Scotland was attempted in 1604–8, and existed briefly in the 1650s. It took place in 1707, creating GREAT BRITAIN. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; DUMNONIA; UNION OF CROWNS, ENGLAND (WITH IRELAND) AND SCOTLAND; UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, 1650S.

BRITAIN, BATTLE OFDuring WORLD WAR II, the acute contest for air superiority over the English Channel, fought 10 July–31 Oct. 1940 between the British ROYAL AIR FORCE and German Luftwaffe. The British lost 915 aeroplanes, the Germans 1733. The successful British defence of air space caused Adolf Hitler to postpone his intended invasion of Great Britain. See also DOWDING, HUGH.BRITANNIAsee ROMAN BRITAINBRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

An organization founded in 1831 at YORK to encourage scientific research and seek support from the British government. Suggested by the editor and scientist David Brewster (1781–1868), who feared that British science was declining compared with science in Continental Europe, it was organized by clergyman and geologist William Harcourt (1789–1871). It also reflected concern that the ROYAL SOCIETY had become complacent.

The Association has held annual meetings in major towns in the British Isles and occasionally overseas, and published reports on the state of science. Its 1860 meeting in OXFORD famously featured a confrontation between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and T.H. HUXLEY over the claim of Charles DARWIN that humans resulted from EVOLUTION. In the 1990s the Association’s annual meeting was developed into the British Science Festival, and in 2009 the Association was renamed the British Science Association.

BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION

A public corporation (abbreviated as ‘BBC’) established by royal charter on 1 Jan. 1927 with a monopoly of RADIO broadcasting in Great Britain, NORTHERN IRELAND, the CHANNEL ISLANDS and Isle of MAN. Superseding the commercial British Broadcasting Company (created 1922), and funded by an annual radio licence, the BBC was independent of overt commercial or political influence. Its first director general was John REITH. From the 1930s the BBC developed TELEVISION broadcasting.

The charter was periodically renewed, modified or supplemented. The BBC’s work was supervised by its trustees, the Board of Governors. This model of ‘public broadcasting’ was emulated worldwide. The BBC lost its monopolies of television and radio in 1954 and 1972 respectively. In 2007 a regulatory BBC Trust replaced the Board.

BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION WORLD SERVICEsee BBC WORLD SERVICEBRITISH COMMONWEALTHsee COMMONWEALTHBRITISH COUNCILAn organization which promotes knowledge of British culture (e.g., arts) and the English language overseas, founded in 1934 by the British government as the ‘British Committee for Relations with Other Countries’ to counter ideologies such as communism and fascism. It began work in E Europe and the Middle East in 1934, opening its first overseas offices in 1938, and was incorporated by royal charter as the British Council in 1940. Autonomous, but partly financed by the Foreign Office, the Council has projected British influence following the decline of the BRITISH EMPIRE. In the early 21st century it operated in over 100 countries.BRITISH EMPIRE

The term ‘British Empire’ has covered varying territories and types of activity. England founded an empire of commerce, settlement and commodity production in N America and the WEST INDIES in the 17th century, which was partly lost when most American colonies declared independence in 1776 (see NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES). An empire was developed in E Asia from the 17th century when the EAST INDIA COMPANY established trading posts. It was greatly extended in the later 18th century through territorial acquisitions (see INDIA), and more trading posts and territories were added later, often as PROTECTORATES (see SINGAPORE, MALAYA, BORNEO, HONG KONG). Trading posts were founded in W Africa from the late 17th century (see ROYAL AFRICAN COMPANY).

A new empire of white settlement was created during the later 18th century and first half of the 19th century. Control over French CANADA was established during the SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756–63), while peace settlements of 1814–15 secured a foothold in southern Africa (see CAPE COLONY). Colonies were founded in AUSTRALIA as penal settlements (see TRANSPORTATION). NEW ZEALAND was acquired in 1839–40.

Britain’s dependent empire was expanded considerably during the era of so‐called NEW IMPERIALISM in the later 19th century. In WEST AFRICA, Britain’s coastal presence was extended inland (see GAMBIA, SIERRA LEONE, GOLD COAST, NIGERIA); in N Africa, EGYPT and SUDAN were brought under British rule; and three protectorates were established in EAST AFRICA. Britain also acquired influence in S America and China (see INFORMAL EMPIRE). After WORLD WAR I (1914–18), territories were acquired as MANDATES (in Africa and Middle East).

The British Empire was most extensive in the 1920s. Thereafter it contracted; the Statute of WESTMINSTER (1931) recognized self‐governing DOMINIONS as effectively independent, and many territories became self‐governing between 1947 and 1964 (see DECOLONIZATION). In 2015 the UK retained 14 overseas territories (see DEPENDENT TERRITORY). See also CROWN COLONY; SLAVE TRADE, ENGLISH AND BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.

BRITISH EMPIRE, GOVERNMENT OF

English colonies in the Americas (from 1607) were minimally supervised by the king and PRIVY COUNCIL until CHARLES II increased control through the lords of trade and plantations (from 1675), who oversaw the NAVIGATION ACTS and heard appeals. They were replaced by the Board of TRADE (1696–1782), though the SECRETARY OF STATE (southern) was also involved from the 1720s. After disputes began with NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES (1760s), a separate colonial secretaryship was created (1768–82). Colonial affairs were then handled by the home secretary (1782–1801), secretary for war and the colonies (1801–54) and colonial secretary (1854–1966). PROTECTORATES created in the late 19th century were briefly administered by the foreign secretary, then transferred to the colonial secretary.

From the 17th century until 1858 administration of British INDIA remained with the EAST INDIA COMPANY, though Parliament imposed State supervision (Regulating Act 1773, providing Crown appointment of governors and presidency councils; India Act 1784, creating a Board of Control). There was a secretary of state for India 1858–1947 (with BURMA from 1937, to 1948).

From 1925 there was also a secretary for DOMINION affairs (renamed COMMONWEALTH relations, 1947), a position often held by the colonial secretary. The post absorbed the colonial secretaryship in 1966, but was taken over by the foreign secretary in 1968 (his department became the Foreign and Commonwealth Office).

Within colonies, administration varied, notably between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ rule. Colonies under direct rule usually had a governor and council, and often an assembly. Later administration in India operated through the INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, backed by a police force and Indian Army. Indirect rule, or governance through native authorities with British ‘guidance’, was the preferred method in Indian princely kingdoms, MALAYA (from 19th century), and most of tropical Africa (e.g., NIGERIA). Other types of government included RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES, GOVERNMENTS OF; MANDATE OR MANDATED TERRITORY; INFORMAL EMPIRE.

BRITISH GUIANA

A former British colony on the N coast of S America. The area known as Guiana (larger than the later colony) was visited by Walter RALEGH (1595, 1617–18), who sought the fabled wealthy city of Eldorado, and by other Englishmen. During the 17th century the Dutch established sugar PLANTATIONS worked by slaves.

Great Britain occupied Guiana in 1796 to exclude French influence and retained the W part (1814) which it unified as the CROWN COLONY of British Guiana in 1831. After SLAVERY was abolished in 1834, sugar production declined. Following instability in the 1950s, British Guiana was granted independence as Guyana under the British Crown in 1966, and became a republic in 1970. Approx. population in 1921, 301,000; in 1965, 645,000.

BRITISH HONDURASA former British possession in C America. Settled by English buccaneers and log cutters from 1638, the territory was long denied formal recognition for fear of Spanish hostility. Great Britain appointed a superintendent in 1786 and declared a CROWN COLONY in 1862. British Honduras became self‐governing in 1964, and was renamed Belize in 1973, but territorial claims by neighbouring Guatemala delayed independence. It was granted in 1981 with the British monarch as head of State. Approx. population in 1921, 45,000; in 1980, 145,000.BRITISH–IRISH RELATIONS FROM 1922see IRISH–BRITISH RELATIONS FROM 1922BRITISH ISLES

The archipelago NW of Continental Europe, named from its largest island, BRITAIN. It comprises about 4400 islands of at least 0.5 acre (0.2 ha), of which about 200 are inhabited. The second‐largest island is IRELAND. Other significant, though much smaller, islands or subsidiary archipelagos are Isles of Scilly, Aran Islands, ANGLESEY, Isle of MAN, WESTERN ISLES (or Hebrides), ORKNEY ISLANDS, SHETLAND ISLANDS, Isle of Wight. The CHANNEL ISLANDS are often associated with the British Isles though they lie close to Continental Europe (France).

The islands contain five sovereign jurisdictions: UNITED KINGDOM of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK); Isle of Man (British Crown ‘dependency’ outside UK); bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey (two British Crown ‘dependencies’ outside UK, the Channel Islands); Republic of Ireland. Est. total popn in 2015: 69,909,000.

The islands have never been a single political entity, but they belonged to a single monarch as kingdoms or lordships from 1603 (succession of JAMES VI of SCOTLAND as king of ENGLAND, with the Channel Islands and Man, and as king of Ireland) to 1949 (change of status by SOUTHERN IRELAND to a republic).

BRITISH LEGIONThe main voluntary social and welfare organization for veterans of the British armed forces, founded in 1921 (after WORLD WAR I) by merger of four organizations. Earl HAIG was its first president; ‘Royal’ was prefixed in 1971. The Legion provides care with funds raised by an annual ‘poppy appeal’. In the early 21st century it had branches in the UK, Republic of Ireland and other countries, and over 300,000 members.BRITISH NATIONAL PARTYsee FASCISM, GREAT BRITAINBRITISH NORTH BORNEO COMPANYA commercial company founded in 1881 by Alfred Dent, and granted a British royal charter, which in 1882 took over jurisdiction in North Borneo (part of Borneo). The sultans of Sulu and Brunei had earlier granted jurisdiction to Baron von Overbeck, Austro‐Hungarian consul at HONG KONG, and Overbeck had conveyed his rights to Dent (1880). The charter obliged the company to administer justice with regard to native law, and to preserve native religion and customs. A British PROTECTORATE was established in 1888. The company administered North Borneo until it became a CROWN COLONY in 1946 (except during Japanese occupation, 1942–5).BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATIONsee BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCEBRITISH SOMALILANDA former British territory on the Gulf of Aden in E Africa (now part of Somalia). British forces occupied the coast in 1884 to secure the sea route to ADEN and supplies. After treaties had been negotiated with various sultans, a PROTECTORATE was declared in 1888. Tribal raiding, led by Mahommed bin Abdullah Hassan (the so‐called ‘Mad Mullah’), hindered administration inland until 1920. The territory was united with Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the independent Somali Republic. Approx. population in 1921, 345,000; in 1959, 500,000. See also EAST AFRICA, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANYA commercial company incorporated in 1888 and led by Cecil RHODES (d. 1902). In 1889 it was authorized by royal charter to administer and exploit a large area of SE Africa. It created and ran the territories known as SOUTHERN RHODESIA and NORTHERN RHODESIA, retaining sovereign rights until 1924 (expiry of charter). In 1965 the company merged its business with other companies and continued as a non‐trading entity.BRITONS IN ANGLO‐SAXON KINGDOMSFrom the 5th century men of Germanic origin established kingdoms in southern Britain which contained a majority of British (Brittonic‐speaking) inhabitants. British inhabitants are acknowledged in the laws of King ÆTHELBERT of KENT (d. 616). Their social structure included nobles, freemen and unfree peasants, but they were reckoned at lower status than corresponding Germanic inhabitants (see WERGELD). A similar situation appears in the laws of INE of WESSEX (d. c.726). The majority Britons eventually assimilated to the culture of the Germanic minority (by 9th century). See also GERMANIC IMMIGRATION, SOUTHERN BRITAIN; CEMETERIES, EARLY GERMANIC.BRITTEN, BENJAMIN(b. 22 Nov. 1913 at Lowestoft, Suffolk, England; d. 4 Dec. 1976 at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, aged 73). An accomplished composer as a teenager, Britten studied at the Royal College of Music (1930–3) and developed a modernist idiom without abandoning tonality. He quickly built a reputation with both instrumental and vocal works (e.g., song‐cycle Our Hunting Fathers, 1936). A conscientious objector to war, Britten lived in the USA 1939–42, during WORLD WAR II. After his return to Great Britain, he composed Peter Grimes (performed 1945), the first of several operas to join the international repertoire, and founded the Aldeburgh Festival (1948). Later works include the War Requiem (1961). Created Lord Britten (1976), he was the first composer to become a peer.BRIXTON AND TOXTETH RIOTS

In Great Britain, two large outbreaks of urban disorder in 1981, a period of high unemployment, inflation and widespread disturbances. Both occurred in areas with substandard housing and AFRICAN CARIBBEAN populations.

In Brixton, S London, on Saturday 11 April 1981 a predominantly black crowd attacked a heavy police presence, following a week of intensive policing and, on the previous evening, a battle between black youths and police. For the first time in Britain, petrol bombs were thrown at police; police vehicles were burned, 28 buildings were torched and 117 other buildings damaged. A visit the next day by the home secretary, William Whitelaw, provoked more rioting and looting, also involving white gangs.

In Toxteth, LIVERPOOL (NW England), rioting by black and white youths took place from 4 to 12 July, following a confrontation between youths and the police on 3 July. 500 people were arrested, 460 police were injured and 70 buildings were demolished. Police used CS gas for the first time in Britain.

Responses included the government‐commissioned ‘Scarman Report’ on the Brixton Riots (1981), by the senior judge Lord Scarman, which criticized the treatment of black people by the police and urged tackling of racial disadvantages. After the Toxteth Riots Michael HESELTINE, the environment secretary, encouraged regeneration in Liverpool, and Robert RUNCIE, archbishop of Canterbury, commissioned a report on inner‐city problems, Faith in the City (1985). See also ETHNIC AND NATIONAL MINORITIES, ENGLAND.

BROADCASTING, ENGLANDsee RADIO BROADCASTING, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND; TELEVISION, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELANDBROADCASTING, NORTHERN IRELAND

From 15 Sept. 1924 the British Broadcasting Company (BBC) radio station ‘2BE’ transmitted the BBC’s national programme and local items over a limited area from BELFAST. When the BBC became a corporation (1927), it was renamed BBC Northern Ireland. A new transmitter covered the entire province from 1936. Music predominated in local programming until c.1933 when speech programmes (e.g., talks, plays) became more prominent. Apart from news, current affairs were avoided to placate the Unionist government, thereby alienating Catholics, though the BBC co‐operated with southern Ireland’s station despite criticism.

During WORLD WAR II (1939–45), local programming ceased. On resumption, broadcasts included programmes from NE England because of a wavelength shortage (to 1963). The station sought to present Northern Ireland positively but was criticized for limited interest in Gaelic Irish culture; requests for Irish language programmes were refused, although Irish music was broadcast.

The threat of commercial radio provoked the BBC into transforming its station into Radio Ulster (1975), giving local programmes priority. From 1979 BBC Radio Foyle provided programmes for Co. Londonderry within Radio Ulster’s schedule. Commercial broadcasting began with Downtown Radio (1976). The Belfast CityBeat station (1996–2015) won numerous awards.

The BBC relayed television to Northern Ireland from 1953. During the 1950s local programming gradually expanded, spurred from 1959 by competition from the commercial station Ulster TV (part of the Independent Television Network). BBC Two was inaugurated in 1964. Television broadcasting notably made the world aware of the TROUBLES (1968–90s) and influenced their course. See also BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION.

BROADCASTING, SCOTLAND

The first radio stations of the commercial British Broadcasting Company (BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION from 1927) included four in Scotland: Glasgow and Aberdeen (1923), Edinburgh and Dundee (1924). They broadcast both London‐originated and locally produced programmes. In 1930, except for Aberdeen, they were replaced by a single National Region for Scotland which produced some programming. After restructuring of ‘BBC’ radio programmes into four services in 1967, most Scottish material appeared as ‘opt‐outs’ on Radio 4.

The development of commercial radio in Scotland began with Radio Clyde (1973) in Glasgow. It prompted the BBC to develop its services. It inaugurated BBC Radio Orkney, BBC Radio Shetland (both 1977) and BBC Radio Scotland (1978). From 1985 BBC Radio nan Gàidheal broadcast material in Gaelic. By 2017 there were about 36 local commercial stations as well as smaller community stations and other forms of radio broadcasting.

The BBC began television broadcasts in Scotland in 1952, although few programmes were originated locally. Under the 1954 Television Act two commercial stations were started within Scotland: Scottish Television (1957, later STV), covering C Scotland; Grampian (1961), for NE Scotland (also N Scotland from 1982). Border TV (1961) covered the border region and SW from NW England. The BBC started a second channel in 1964, with its channels becoming known as BBC1 Scotland and BBC2 Scotland. In 1997 the owner of STV acquired Grampian, and in 2006 rebranded the stations as STV Central and STV North.

New technologies developed in the 1980s–90s were utilized to provide television in Gaelic. The commercial digital channel TeleG operated from 1999 to 2011, and the satellite and cable service BBC Alba from 2008 (a partnership with the Gaelic Media Service, created by the UK 2003 Communications Act). See also GAELDOM, SCOTLAND.

BROADCASTING, SOUTHERN IRELAND

Regular radio broadcasts began in the IRISH FREE STATE on 1 Jan. 1926 with a speech by Douglas HYDE, mostly in Irish. The station, ‘2RN’, operated under the Department for Posts and Telegraphs with some State funding. It was renamed Radio Athlone (1933) and Radio Éireann (1937). Programmes included Irish language lessons, sports reports and music, but little news reporting. A committee, Comhairle Radio Éireann, provided independent supervision 1953–60.

In 1960 a State‐sponsored, public‐service authority was established, Radio Éireann (renamed Radio Telefís Éireann, RTÉ, in 1966), which was charged with promoting Irish language and culture. During the 1970s–80s its monopoly was challenged by unauthorized ‘pirate’ stations, including an Irish‐language station (1970). It responded with new services: Raidió na Gaeltachta (1972), an Irish‐language for the GAELTACHT, and Radio 2 (1979) for young people. Legislation in 1988 suppressed the ‘pirates’ and created the Independent Radio and Television Commission with licensing powers. A commercial station was launched in 1989. In 2015 there were nine RTÉ stations, two commercial national stations, and digital and local stations.

RTÉ inaugurated television broadcasting on New Year’s Eve 1961, including an address by President Éamon DE VALERA. Due to restricted funds, extensive programming was bought from the USA. Home productions included The Late Late Show, a ‘chat show’ which tackled social issues (presented 1962–99 by Gay Byrne). Colour broadcasting started in 1971. RTÉ initiated RTÉ 2 in 1978 (UK programmes and Irish material) and Telefís na Gaeilge in 1996 (Irish‐language programmes). TV3, a commercial channel, began in 1998. Satellite and cable television expanded from the 1990s, and another commercial channel, Channel 6, operated 2006–9.

BROADCASTING, WALES

RADIO BROADCASTING was initiated in 1923, from a studio in CARDIFF serving S Wales and SW England, by the British Broadcasting Company (Corporation from 1927). Wales received its own wavelength in 1937, and the few programmes produced there were divided equally between Welsh and English. Two full home services, BBC Radio Wales (English) and BBC Radio Cymru (Welsh), were established in 1978 and 1979 respectively. The first commercial radio station, Swansea Sound, operated from 1974.

BBC TELEVISION was extended to Wales in 1952, serving S Wales and SW England, as did the commercial company Television Wales and West (TWW) from 1958. Other areas were covered by the commercial Wales (West and North) Television from 1962, and in 1964 Wales received a BBC service (BBC Wales Television). The paucity of Welsh‐language programmes on BBC Wales and HTV (Harlech TV, successor to TWW from 1968) caused protests. In 1979 political parties agreed to provide a Welsh‐language channel, but the elected Conservative government reneged. The intention was reinstated after Gwynfor EVANS threatened to undertake a hunger strike. S4C, the Welsh Fourth Channel, was inaugurated on 2 Nov. 1982.

In 2017 there were four Welsh television services (BBC1 Wales, BBC2 Wales, ITV Cymru Wales, S4C), three national radio stations (BBC Radio Wales, BBC Radio Cymru, BBC Radio Cymru 2), 14 commercial radio stations, and community radio stations.

BROCHA type of multi‐storey, circular stone house found in the northern Hebrides, northern Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. Its origins lie in the early IRON AGE (from c.700 BC), but brochs were common in the 1st centuries BC and AD. Compared with WHEELHOUSES, they may represent élite dwellings. See also PREHISTORIC BRITAIN, HOUSING.BRONZE AGE, BRITAINThe period c.2300– c.700 BC, when copper, bronze and gold artefacts were produced. Developing out of the NEOLITHIC, it is often divided into Early (to c.1600 BC), Middle (to c.1200 BC) and Late phases. Evidence for the Early Bronze Age is dominated by STONE CIRCLES, rock art, ROUND BARROWS and HENGE MONUMENTS. Later phases are commonly traced through field systems and other land divisions. Increasingly varied forms of metalwork – weaponry, tools and bodily ornaments – were used, displayed and circulated during the period. Succeeded by the IRON AGE.BRONZE AGE, IRELANDThe period c.2300–to c.700 BC, often divided into Early (to c.1700 BC), Middle (to c.1200 BC) and Late phases. Apart from the many metal objects that give the period its name, the earlier phases are marked by single burials containing food vessels and cinerary urns, while the later phase has few burials but numerous settlements. It developed from, and overlapped with, the CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD and was succeeded by the IRON AGE.BROOKE, ALAN(b. 23 July 1883 at Bagnères‐de‐Bigorre, France; d. 17 June 1963 at Hartley Wintney, Hampshire, England, aged 79). A soldier in the British Army, Brooke became chief of the imperial general staff in Dec. 1941, playing a major part in formulating Allied strategy in WORLD WAR II. His relations with Prime Minister Winston CHURCHILL were stormy but productive. In 1945 he retired and was created Lord Alanbrooke (created Viscount Alanbrooke 1946).BROOKE, BASIL(b. 9 June 1888 at Colebrooke Park, Co. Fermanagh, Ireland; d. 18 Aug. 1973 at Colebrooke Park, Northern Ireland, aged 85). Brooke succeeded as baronet in 1907, and was an ULSTER UNIONIST PARTY member of Northern Ireland's House of Commons 1929–68. As prime minister, from 1 May 1943, he increased war‐related industrial production (1943–5) and co‐operated with the social policies of Britain's post‐war Labour government (1945–51), introducing free health care and secondary education (1946–8). After southern Ireland became a republic (1949) he obtained the Ireland Act, whereby the UK Parliament guaranteed Northern Ireland's position within the UK. Brooke sought to maintain Unionist cohesion and ignored Catholic grievances, perpetuating sectarianism. Northern Ireland's longest‐serving prime minister, he resigned (25 March 1963) because of increasing unemployment and the electoral threat from the Northern Ireland Labour Party. He was created Viscount Brookeborough (1952). See also NORTHERN IRELAND; WELFARE STATE.BROOKEBOROUGH, VISCOUNTsee BROOKE, BASILBROOKE FAMILY

The English family who ruled Sarawak in BORNEO, 1842–1946. James Brooke (1803–68), a soldier and adventurer, helped to suppress a rebellion in the Sarawak River area (1840). In return, he was made governor (1841) by a local rajah (prince) and then installed as rajah (1842), under the overlordship of the sultan of Brunei. Ruling with a government of natives and white officers, he introduced laws, encouraged trade, countered piracy, and explored the interior. He received the island of Labuan (1846), and additional land (1862).

James Brooke was succeeded in 1868 by his nephew Charles Brooke (1829–1917). He acquired more lands from the sultan of Brunei, and in 1888 allowed Sarawak to become a British PROTECTORATE. In the early 20th century he encouraged rubber cultivation. In 1917 he was succeeded by his son Vyner Brooke (1874–1963), who developed oil and introduced a written constitution (Sept. 1941) but was forced out by the Japanese (Sarawak occupied 1941–5). He ceded Sarawak to Britain in 1946. The Brookes were nicknamed ‘white rajahs’.

BROUGHAM, HENRY(b. 19 Sept. 1778 at Edinburgh, Scotland; d. 7 May 1868 at Cannes, France, aged 89). British WHIG politician, lawyer and popular educator. Brougham was a Whig MP 1810–12 and from 1816. He won popularity defending Queen CAROLINE (1820). Created Lord Brougham and appointed lord CHANCELLOR in 1830, he piloted the Great Reform Act through the House of Lords (1832). After losing office in 1834, he was never reappointed. (Lord MELBOURNE found his vanity insufferable.) Brougham wrote on numerous subjects and designed the four‐wheeled horse‐drawn carriage named after him. See also PARLIAMENTARY REFORM.BROWN, GEORGE(b. 2 Sept. 1914 at Lambeth, London, England; d. 2 June 1985 at Truro, Cornwall, England, aged 70). A van driver’s son, Brown became a trade unionist and LABOUR PARTY activist. Elected as an MP in 1945, he opposed the BEVANITES (1950s) and served as deputy leader of the Party (1960–70). Harold WILSON appointed him (1964) as the first economic affairs secretary, charged with economic planning and modernization of industry. He was British foreign secretary from 1966, but resigned (15 March 1968) over Wilson’s failure to consult him. Volatile and fond of drink, Brown lost his seat in 1970 and was created Lord George‐Brown. He joined the SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY in 1985.BROWN, GORDON

(b. 20 Feb. 1951 at Glasgow, Scotland). Leader of the LABOUR PARTY and British prime minister 2007–2010.

A student politician (at EDINBURGH University), lecturer and journalist, Brown became a Labour MP (1983) and Opposition spokesman. Though ambitious, he did not contest the 1992 Party leadership election; in 1994 he stood aside for rival Tony BLAIR (see GRANITA ACCORD).

As chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair’s government from 1997, Brown delegated control of interest rates to the BANK OF ENGLAND and created the Financial Services Authority to regulate financial companies. Prioritizing economic stability, he regularly claimed to have abolished cycles of ‘boom and bust’. Against Blair, he blocked entry to the euro (European currency), and considerably directed domestic policy (e.g., introducing TAX CREDITS). He sought trade union support against Blair’s more inclusive approach (see SPENCE AFFAIR). The government divided into ‘Brownites’ and ‘Blairites’.

When Blair resigned under pressure in 2007, the Labour Party enabled Brown to become leader without opposition. Succeeding as prime minister, he failed to exploit public popularity by holding a general election. In 2008–9 an international financial crisis triggered bank failures, increased unemployment and inflated the government’s deficit. Labour lost the 2010 election; Brown resigned as prime minister and Party leader. He left Parliament in 2015. See also MANDELSON, PETER; CAMERON, DAVID.

BROWNE, GEORGE

(fl. from 1520s in England; d. after 25 Nov. 1556 in Ireland). Religious reformer in Ireland. Originally a friar and priest in England, Browne from 1532 advocated annulment of Henry VIII’s marriage. At Easter 1533, during a sermon in London, he revealed Henry’s remarriage (to Anne Boleyn; see GREAT MATTER). He supported royal supremacy over the English Church.

Appointed archbishop of DUBLIN in 1536, Browne went to Ireland where he publicized Henry’s headship of the Irish Church (1538, in prescribed prayers called ‘The Form of the Beads’) and issued injunctions against ‘superstitious’ practices (e.g., pilgrimages to shrines). But he resisted further reforms under Edward VI (1547–53), and was deprived of his archbishopric (1554) by the Catholic Mary I for an earlier marriage (1536–c.1540). Browne obtained a pardon for misdemeanours from Cardinal POLE (1555) and died a Catholic. See also REFORMATION, IRELAND.

BROWNISTSTerm used in England from the 1580s to mid 17th century for members of ‘separatist’ Church congregations (i.e., independent Protestant congregations outside the Church of ENGLAND). They were named after Robert Browne (c.1550–1633), who founded a congregation at NORWICH (E England) in 1581 (transferred to Netherlands 1582). Leaders were usually radical Puritans, and congregations were persecuted. See also PURITANISM, ENGLAND; CONGREGATIONALISTS; NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, ENGLAND.BRUCE, EDWARDsee BRUCE INVASION OF IRELANDBRUCE FAMILYA Scottish noble and royal family from NW NORMANDY (N France); descendants of Robert de Brius (now Brix) who received lands in NE England from King HENRY I of England and the lordship of Annandale (SW Scotland) from King DAVID I of Scotland in 1124. In 1291 Robert Bruce (1210–95) claimed the Scottish kingship (as grandson of David, earl of HUNTINGDON; see GREAT CAUSE). His grandson Robert, and Robert's son David, ruled Scotland (see ROBERT I; DAVID II).BRUCE INVASION OF IRELAND

A Scottish attempt to conquer the English colony in Ireland, thereby pressurizing King EDWARD II of England on a ‘second front'; led by Edward Bruce (c.1275–1318), brother of King ROBERT I.

Bruce landed at Larne, NE Ireland, on 26 May 1315 and was crowned king of Ireland shortly afterwards. His main supporter was Domnall O'Neill of Ulster (see O'NEILL FAMILIES), who rebutted papal condemnation with a ‘Remonstrance of the Irish Princes' (1317). Expeditions into English‐held lands (1315–16, 1317, 1318) won little support because the Anglo‐Irish viewed Bruce as an Irish king. He was killed on 14 Oct. 1318 during the battle of Faughart (E Ireland). The invasion permanently reduced revenues received by the English colony's government. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290–1357; GAELIC REVIVAL, IRELAND 13TH–15TH CENTURIES.

BRUCE KINGSsee BRUCE FAMILYBRUNANBURH, BATTLE OFFought at an unidentified location in NE England or the E Midlands in 937. West Saxons and Mercians (English), led by King ATHELSTAN, defeated an invading army led by Kings CONSTANTINE II of Scotland, Owain of STRATHCLYDE, and Olaf Guthfrithson of DUBLIN. The invasion was probably revenge for Athelstan's invasion of Scotland (934) and intended to enable Olaf to re‐establish the Viking kingdom of YORK.BRUNEI PROTECTORATEsee BORNEOBRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM

(b. 9 April 1806 at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England; d. 15 Sept. 1859 at Westminster, Middlesex, England, aged 53). The son of Marc Isambard Brunel (1769–1849), a French royalist émigré civil engineer, Brunel was educated in England and France. In England from 1822, he worked from 1825 as assistant engineer on his father’s Thames tunnel at London, but suffered injury (1828). While recovering at Clifton (near BRISTOL, SW England), he won a design competition for a bridge across the Avon Valley (completed posthumously).

In 1833, aged 27, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the Great Western Railway, for which he constructed over 1000 mi (1600 km) of ‘broad gauge’ track and innovatory structures (e.g., Saltash Bridge). He also designed three pioneering large steamships: SS Great Western (inaugurated 1838), the first successful trans‐Atlantic steamship (paddle‐driven); Great Britain (1845), the first large iron‐hulled and screw‐propelled steamship; Great Eastern (1859), the first ship with a double iron hull. Brunel was one of Great Britain’s greatest civil engineers. See also RAILWAYS, ENGLAND; ENGINEERING, GREAT BRITAIN.

BRUTON, JOHN

(b. 18 May 1947 at Dunboyne, Co. Meath, southern Ireland). A barrister and farmer, Bruton became a FINE GAEL TD (1969) and served in the governments of Liam COSGRAVE (1973–7) and Garret FITZGERALD (1981–2, 1982–7). In 1990 he was elected party leader, succeeding Alan Dukes with whom Fine Gael TDs had become dissatisfied.

In Dec. 1994, following collapse of the FIANNA FÁIL–LABOUR coalition government of Albert REYNOLDS, Bruton became taoiseach (premier) of a coalition with Labour and the Democratic Left, nicknamed the ‘Rainbow Coalition’ (Ireland’s first instance of a new coalition government formed without a general election). During Bruton’s premiership divorce was legalized by referendum (1995), economic growth accelerated (reaching 10% in 1997), and the Northern Ireland PEACE PROCESS was pursued vigorously. Bruton lost office in 1997 because of Labour’s losses in a general election. He was replaced as party leader in 2001 for fear that Fine Gael would perform badly at the 2002 election. See also SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP; AHERN, BERTIE.

BRUT Y TYWYSOGION(Welsh, meaning ‘Chronicle of the Princes'). A late 13th‐century chronicle, in Middle Welsh; an outstanding source for Welsh history 682–1282. Three versions survive, probably separate translations of a lost version of the ANNALES CAMBRIAE . At least one came from STRATA FLORIDA.BRYCHEINIOG

An early medieval kingdom in WALES (5th or 6th–10th centuries); later a lordship in the MARCH OF WALES (11th–16th centuries) based around the upper R. Usk and encircled by mountainous terrain. It was named after Brychan, a legendary Irish immigrant (5th or 6th century).

An Irish‐style CRANNOG at Llangorse (possibly the seat of Brycheiniog's kings) and Irish OGHAM stone inscriptions give plausibility to the legend of Irish foundation. Brycheiniog is mentioned from the mid 8th century. Around 885 King Elise ap Tewdwr, under pressure from the dynasty of RHODRI MAWR of GWYNEDD, submitted to the overlordship of King ALFRED of WESSEX (SW England). But relations with England were sometimes stormy (e.g., in 916 ÆTHELFLÆD attacked Llangorse, capturing the king's wife and 33 others). The dynasty survived until the 930s: the last known king, Tewdwr, submitted to ATHELSTAN in 934. By the 980s Brycheiniog had fallen to DEHEUBARTH (SW Wales).

In 1093 King RHYS AP TEWDWR of Deheubarth was killed in Brycheiniog by NORMANS – probably followers of BERNARD OF NEUFMARCHÉ, who took over Brycheiniog and founded the lordship of Brecon. It passed to the earls of Hereford (c.1125), to the families of BRAOSE (c.1165) and BOHUN (1241), and eventually (1399) to the duchy of LANCASTER. In 1536 Brecon was combined with BUILTH to form Breconshire. See also IRISH COLONIZATION OF BRITAIN, 4TH–6TH CENTURIES.

B SPECIALSsee ULSTER SPECIAL CONSTABULARYBUCHANAN, GEORGE

(b. Feb. 1506 at Moss, C Scotland; d. 29 Sept. 1582 at Edinburgh, SE Scotland, aged 76). In 1538 Buchanan, a private tutor who had studied at French and Scottish universities, was imprisoned by David BEATON for writing a satire on Franciscan FRIARS (commissioned by King JAMES V). He escaped abroad (1539) and was imprisoned for heresy (Protestantism) in Portugal (1548–51).

In Scotland again from 1561, Buchanan became tutor to MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. He accepted Protestantism (see REFORMATION, SCOTLAND), and though a layman was moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of SCOTLAND (June 1567). In the MARIAN CIVIL WAR after Mary's forced abdication (1568–73) he supported JAMES VI's party, and was tutor to the king (1570–8). Buchanan developed views about limited monarchy to justify Mary’s deposition, which remained politically controversial well into the 17th century. He was also the first to claim, in his 20‐volume (Latin) History of Scotland, that the Scots, Welsh and Irish were Celts (see CELTIC CULTURE). See also HUMANISM.

BUCKINGHAM, DUKE OF

(b. 28 Aug. 1592 at Brooksby, Leicestershire, England; d. 23 Aug. 1628 at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, aged 35). George Villiers met King JAMES VI/I in 1614. Knighted in 1615, he replaced the earl of SOMERSET as royal favourite and became influential. He was created Viscount Villiers (1616), earl of Buckingham (Jan. 1617), appointed a privy councillor (Feb.) and raised to marquess (1618) and duke (1623). In 1623 Buckingham accompanied James’s heir Charles to Spain (see SPANISH MATCH). His subsequent demand (1624) for war against Spain won popularity. But an expedition against Catholic Habsburg forces in Germany, Jan.–March 1625, failed.

Buckingham’s continuing influence after the accession of CHARLES I (1625) caused Parliament to limit further funds (summer). After a naval expedition against Cádiz, Spain, failed (Oct.), Parliament attempted to impeach Buckingham (May 1626). Charles dissolved Parliament and ordered a FORCED LOAN. Buckingham led a naval expedition to aid French Protestants in La Rochelle, to weaken France (July–Nov. 1627). After its failure Parliament attacked Buckingham in a remonstrance (June 1628). Buckingham was murdered by John Felton, a discontented soldier.

BUCKINGHAM PALACE

The principal LONDON residence of monarchs of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is the second royal residence on its site. The first was Buckingham House (built 1702–5), which was acquired in 1762 by King GEORGE III and renamed the Queen’s House, for Queen Charlotte.

GEORGE IV, king from 1820 (formerly prince regent, resident at Carlton House), thought the monarchy required a more imposing residence. The government funded a new palace (1825–30, 1832–7), designed by John Nash and completed by Edward Blore. It comprised three ranges of buildings round a courtyard with a triumphal arch on the east side. The palace was occupied by VICTORIA (from 1837) and subsequent monarchs.

The east side was enclosed with a building in 1846–50 (and the ‘Marble Arch’ relocated). In 1913 a new façade was added to the east range (designed by Aston Webb), providing an imposing public frontage. The palace is used for numerous State occasions. The State Apartments were opened annually to visitors from 1993.

BUCKINGHAM PALACE CONFERENCEIn Great Britain, a meeting of British and Irish political leaders at Buckingham Palace, LONDON, 21–24 July 1914. It was called by King GEORGE V, at the British government's request, in response to the situation in Ireland: supporters and opponents of Home Rule had armed themselves in anticipation of its introduction. The Conference failed because Irish nationalists (John REDMOND, John DILLON) and Unionists (E.H. CARSON, James CRAIG) could not agree a scheme for the exclusion of ULSTER (N Ireland). See also HOME RULE MOVEMENT, IRELAND.BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 2ND EARL OF(b. 17 Aug. 1723 at Greenwich, Kent, England; d. 3 Sept. 1793 at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, England, aged 70). John Hobart succeeded as earl in 1756, and in 1777 was sent to Ireland as chief governor (lord lieutenant). He encountered unrest caused by British restrictions on food exports (imposed 1776, to help the British Army in the AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE). The crisis worsened; Buckinghamshire faced the rise of the VOLUNTEERS and of the NON-IMPORTATION MOVEMENT (1779), and Parliament's refusal to grant new taxes (Nov. 1779). He proved unable to master the situation, and the British government was forced to lift trade restrictions (1780). Buckinghamshire was recalled in late 1780. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY.BUCKINGHAMSHIRE ELECTION AFFAIRIn England, a crisis in 1604, after the accession of King JAMES VI/I, when the Court of CHANCERY annulled the election of Francis Goodwin as an MP for Buckinghamshire (because he was an outlaw). The House of Commons challenged James’s referral of the matter to the Court (March). A new election was held, with James conceding that the House was entitled to settle disputed elections (11 April). See also PARLIAMENTARY PRIVILEGE.BUILTH

A minor medieval kingdom in C WALES, first recorded c.800. In the 9th century its kings were said to rule over the neighbouring Gwerthrynion and claimed descent from VORTIGERN. Builth was ruled in the late 11th century as a CANTREF by descendants of RHODRI MAWR. Its name (Welsh, Buellt, from bu and gelt) means ‘cow pasture'.

Builth was among the first lordships established by NORMANS in Wales: it was conquered c.1095 by Philip de BRAOSE, lord of Radnor. The lordship, though small, was important: its castle guarded the route from England into C Wales along the Wye Valley. In 1228 Builth passed as dowry to DAFYDD AP LLYWELYN of Gwynedd when he married Isabel Braose.

Builth was among the first Welsh lands taken by King HENRY III of England in 1241. It subsequently passed between Henry (later EDWARD I) and LLYWELYN AP GRUFFUDD of Gwynedd according to political fortunes, until 1277 when the English established control and rebuilt the castle. Thereafter the lordship was leased to Marcher families, notably the MORTIMERS, and was included in Breconshire in 1536; see UNION OF WALES WITH ENGLAND.

BULGARIAN ATROCITIESName given to the brutal reprisals which Turkish leaders took against a revolt by Bulgarian guerrillas in May 1876. In Great Britain, reports of massacres brought the EASTERN QUESTION to the forefront of politics (1876–80). While the Conservative prime minister, Benjamin DISRAELI, persisted in supporting the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, the Liberal W.E. GLADSTONE conducted a campaign of moral outrage, demanding expulsion of the Turks from Europe.BUNYAN, JOHN

(b. Nov. 1628 at Elstow, Bedfordshire, England; d. 31 Aug. 1688 at London, England, aged 59). After fighting in a Parliamentary army 1644–6 (during the First CIVIL WAR), Bunyan became a Puritan, author, and preacher at an Independent church in Bedford in the mid 1650s. Following the RESTORATION of the monarchy (1660), he was regularly imprisoned.

Released under the 1672 Declaration of INDULGENCE, Bunyan preached widely in the Midlands and in London. His publications drew on his earlier religious conversion. They included Grace Abounding (1666) and The Pilgrim’s Progress (2 parts, 1678, 1684). The latter became one of the most influential works in the English language. See also PURITANISM, ENGLAND; NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, ENGLAND.

BURDETT, FRANCIS

(b. 25 Jan. 1770 at Foremark, Derbyshire, England; d. 23 Jan. 1844 at London, England, aged 73). An MP from 1796 (and baronet from 1797), Burdett was a FOXITE Whig until 1806. Increasingly radical thereafter, he became a leading national campaigner for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM (until 1820). He presented reform Bills to the UK Parliament in 1809, 1817 and 1818 (the last including manhood suffrage). He became a popular hero in 1810 when he was imprisoned for publishing a parliamentary speech (a breach of parliamentary privilege).

From 1825 Burdett campaigned for CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. He remained an MP until his death, supporting the Conservatives from 1837.

BURGESSIn England from the late 11th century, a male inhabitant of a TOWN (from OFr. burgeis, meaning ‘town dweller’), implying the acquisition of liberties (e.g., as a tenement‐holder) and belonging to a town’s community. The term spread to other parts of the British Isles. As TOWN GOVERNMENT changed, the term acquired narrower meanings: either a man who had been admitted to a town’s body of freemen (inhabitants entitled to trade, elect town officers and hold office) or a member of a town’s self‐perpetuating authority (or ‘closed corporation’). (Non‐burgess inhabitants were sometimes called ‘foreigners’.) The term largely disappeared with the reform of town corporations, when authorities became composed of councillors – two‐thirds elected, one‐third aldermen elected by other councillors (Scotland, 1833; England and Wales, 1835; Ireland, 1840).BURGESS, THOMAS(b. 18 Nov. 1756 at Odiham, Hampshire, England; d. 19 Feb. 1837 at Salisbury, Wiltshire, England, aged 80). As bishop of ST DAVIDS 1803–25, Burgess strove to improve the Church of England in Wales. In 1822 he founded St David's College, Lampeter (Cardiganshire), which raised the educational standard of clergy. He also encouraged clergy interested in Welsh literature and supported Welsh cultural societies. He was bishop of Salisbury (England) 1825–37. See also UNIVERSITIES, WALES.BURGH

Term for an urban settlement in Scotland, with privileges of trade and self‐government; the term is derived from OE burh (see BURH).

The earliest burghs were royal foundations, started by King DAVID I (ruled 1124–53). By 1306 there were 38 royal burghs (many the heads of SHERIFFDOMS and alongside castles), and 18 non‐royal burghs (founded by churchmen or secular lords). From the late 14th century older foundations encouraged a distinction between ‘royal burghs' (including some Church burghs) and ‘burghs of barony', recent or new towns founded by secular lords. Royal burghs managed to establish monopolies of trade in their areas or ‘liberties' and of foreign trade, in return for contributions to taxation. (Baronial burghs monopolized trade only within their boundaries.) Royal burghs co‐ordinated policy, allocated taxation and encouraged uniformity in town government through the Court of the FOUR BURGHS and CONVENTION OF ROYAL BURGHS. Their independent and influential position within the political framework was unique in Europe.

New baronial burghs were founded in the 15th century, and some 270 between 1500 and c.1720, challenging the position of royal burghs; they lost their monopoly of foreign trade in 1672. In the 19th century burghs and populous places lacking burgh status could adopt powers under ‘Police Acts' (1833–67) and be classified as ‘police burghs'.

In 1929 surviving burghs were reorganized into three categories (effective from 1930): cities (ABERDEEN, DUNDEE, EDINBURGH, GLASGOW), large burghs (19), and small burghs (178). Burghs were abolished in 1975. See also TOWN GOVERNMENT, SCOTLAND; TOWN SOCIETY, SCOTLAND.

BURGH, HUBERT DE

(b. c.1170, probably in Norfolk, England; d. May 1243 at Banstead, Surrey, England, aged about 73). In the 1190s de Burgh entered the service of Prince JOHN (king from 1199) and was seneschal of Poitou 1212–15. Having remained loyal during the crisis of 1215, he was appointed CHIEF JUSTICIAR as someone acceptable to John’s opponents (by 25 June).

After John’s death (Oct. 1216), de Burgh supported the accession of HENRY III, a minor, and remained justiciar. From Oct. 1221 he was pre‐eminent in the government, having sidelined Peter des ROCHES. He also married Margaret, sister of ALEXANDER II of Scotland (his second marriage).

After Henry took power (Jan. 1227), he made de Burgh earl of Kent (Feb.) and confirmed the justiciarship for life (1228). But on 29 July 1232 Henry dismissed de Burgh for allegedly inciting anti‐Italian riots. Imprisoned, he later escaped and was pardoned. See also BURGH OR BURKE FAMILY, IRELAND.

BURGHAL HIDAGEName given to a memorandum which lists: (a) 30 BURHS (fortified places), mainly in WESSEX (S England), (b) the HIDES allocated for the maintenance and manning of each burh's defences (due from estates). It probably dates from after 914 (in the reign of EDWARD THE ELDER). The list demonstrates the sophistication of royal government in Anglo‐Saxon England. See also THREE PUBLIC SERVICES.BURGH OR BURKE FAMILY, IRELAND

An Anglo‐Irish noble family, descended from the Englishman William de Burgh (d. 1205) who arrived in Ireland in 1185 (with Prince JOHN) and received land in MUNSTER (S Ireland, 1185) and title to CONNACHT (W Ireland, c.1194). His son Richard (d. 1243) was granted most of Connacht (1227, forfeited 1232–4). Richard's second successor Walter (d. 1271) received the earldom of Ulster in 1263 from the Lord Edward (see EDWARD I AND IRELAND). His son Richard, the ‘Red Earl' (c.1259–1326, minor until 1280), was pre‐eminent in Ireland and fought the BRUCE INVASION. Richard's grandson and successor William de Burgh (1312–33) left an heiress who married Lionel, son of King Edward III. Lionel was recognized as earl of Ulster and was later sent to Ireland (see IRELAND, ENGLISH EXPEDITIONS TO, LATE 14TH CENTURY).

After the murder of William de Burgh (1333), most of his estates in Connacht were retained by kinsmen who established their own landed families. By the mid 15th century Gaelicized Burgh families were predominant in Connacht. Later descendants included the earls of Clanricarde (descendants of Ulick de Burgh, created earl 1543, d. 1544) and the political philosopher Edmund BURKE.

BURGH REFORM ACTSTwo Acts of the UK Parliament, 1833, which reformed town government in Scotland. They followed the first Scottish REFORM ACT (1832) and preceded the MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT for England and Wales (1835). The Royal Burghs (Scotland) Act instituted elected councils in royal burghs using the burgh franchise introduced in 1832 for parliamentary elections, thus ending ‘closed corporations’ (self‐perpetuating councils). The Parliamentary Burghs (Scotland) Act implemented similar arrangements in newly created parliamentary burghs. See also TOWN GOVERNMENT, SCOTLAND.BURGUNDY, ENGLISH RELATIONS WITH

In the late 14th and 15th centuries the Valois dukes of Burgundy, with lands in France and the Netherlands, were important for England, which had strong economic ties with the Netherlands. There were four dukes: Philip the Bold (duke 1363–1404), John the Fearless (1404–19); Philip the Good (1419–67), Charles the Bold (1467–77). After Charles’s death, the Burgundian lands were contested. Charles’s heiress, Mary, married Maximilian of Austria (1477), and eventually the main northern lands (Artois, Flanders) were annexed to the HABSBURG EMPIRE (1493).

In France, a quarrel from 1404 between John the Fearless and Louis, duke of Orléans, developed into civil war between so‐called ‘Burgundians’ and ‘Armagnacs’ (1410). The dissension facilitated King HENRY V’s invasion of France (1415; see HUNDRED YEARS WAR). After John the Fearless was murdered (1419) by agents of the French dauphin (heir to the king), Philip the Good allied with the English and affirmed the treaty of TROYES (1420). The alliance was strengthened by marriage of Philip’s sister Anne to John, duke of BEDFORD (1423), but endangered when Humphrey, duke of GLOUCESTER, sought lands in the Netherlands claimed by Philip (1424–5). Philip abandoned the alliance in 1435 (see ARRAS, CONGRESS OF).

In 1468 EDWARD IV of England made a marriage alliance, whereby his sister Margaret of York (1446–1503) married Charles the Bold. Edward and Charles agreed (1474) that Edward would invade France in pursuit of the English claim to the French Crown and cede territory to Charles. Though invasion followed (1475), Edward was bought off by the French king (see PICQUIGNY, TREATY OF).

Margaret became dowager duchess when Charles the Bold died (1477). Following the accession of HENRY VII in England (1485), her court was a place of refuge (until 1496) for Henry’s YORKIST opponents, and she supported Perkin WARBECK.

BURH

OE term for a fortified centre. It was notably used for the forts and fortified towns founded by King ALFRED (ruled 871–99) to defend WESSEX (S England) against VIKINGS. More burhs were founded by EDWARD THE ELDER (ruled 899–924) and ÆTHELFLÆD (ruler of MERCIA 911–18).

During the 10th century ‘burh' became increasingly synonymous with royal urban centres with mints and markets. By the 14th century it had developed into the ME term BOROUGH, which often denoted a self‐governing town. See also BURGHAL HIDAGE; TOWN GOVERNMENT, ENGLAND.

BURKE, EDMUND

(b. 1 Jan. 1729 or 1730 at Dublin, Ireland; d. 9 July 1797 at Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England, aged 67 or 68). After graduating from Trinity College, Dublin, and studying law in England (from 1750), Burke became a prolific writer. He was secretary to the 2nd marquess of ROCKINGHAM from 1764, and an MP 1765–94, mostly in opposition. His rhetoric much influenced the ROCKINGHAM WHIGS. Burke himself attacked the alleged ‘secret influence’ of the Crown; he advocated conciliation with the rebellious N American colonies in the 1760s–70s; and as paymaster‐general in 1782 he achieved some ECONOMICAL REFORM. Also interested in India, in 1787 he instigated the impeachment of Warren HASTINGS.

Burke is best known for his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), a denunciation which became an influential expression of CONSERVATISM. See also BURGH OR BURKE FAMILY, IRELAND; FRENCH REVOLUTION, IMPACT ON ENGLAND.

BURMAA former British territory in SE Asia. British India annexed the kingdom of Burma in three stages: after wars in 1824–6, 1852 and 1885. Burma was governed as a province of INDIA until 1937, when it became a separate CROWN COLONY with limited self‐government. The British expanded rice growing and forestry. Burma was occupied by the Japanese 1942–5, during WORLD WAR II, though part was recaptured in 1945. Independence was granted in 1948, when Burma became a republic outside the COMMONWEALTH. It changed its name to Myanmar in 1989. Approx. population in 1921, 13,212,000; in 1947, 18,000,000. See also ORWELL, GEORGE; WINGATE, ORDE.BURNET, ALEXANDER(bap. 6 Aug. 1615 at Edinburgh, SE Scotland; d. 22 Aug. 1684 at St Andrews, Scotland, aged 69). Burnet served as a priest in the Church of England until ejected by Parliamentarians for Royalist sympathies (1650). After the RESTORATION (1660) he was appointed bishop of ABERDEEN (1663), then archbishop of GLASGOW (1664). Although he implemented government policy by persecuting COVENANTERS in W Scotland, he opposed the 1669 Act of Supremacy (making the king head of the Church of SCOTLAND) and was deposed. He was restored in 1674 and became archbishop of ST ANDREWS in 1679.BURNS, JOHN(b. 20 Oct. 1858 at London, England; d. 24 Jan. 1943 at London, aged 84). Burns, who left school aged ten, was an Independent Labour MP 1892–1918. He co‐operated with the Liberals, and became the first working‐class member of the British CABINET as president of the Local Government Board (1905–14, serving under Henry CAMPBELL‐BANNERMAN and H.H. ASQUITH). Opposition to war prompted his resignation in Aug. 1914 (see WORLD WAR I).BURNS, ROBERT(b. 25 Jan. 1759 at Alloway, Ayrshire, Scotland; d. 21 July 1796 at Dumfries, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, aged 37). Scotland's national poet. A son of a market gardener (later farmer), Burns became famous with the publication of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (1786) and was lionized by EDINBURGH literati. He also collected folk songs and wrote songs to old tunes. After failing as a farmer, he was an EXCISE man in Dumfries (from 1791). His works satirize social divisions and CALVINISM, and celebrate love. From 1801 Burns clubs were founded, which began the tradition of holding ‘Burns suppers' on the poet's birthday, celebrated with poetry, songs and speeches. See also SCOTS LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.BURTON, RICHARD(b. 19 March 1821 at Torquay, Devon, England; d. 20 Oct. 1890 at Trieste, Austro‐Hungarian Empire, aged 69). After working in India for the EAST INDIA COMPANY (1842–9), Burton became an explorer. He visited the Muslim cities of Mecca and Medina (in modern Saudi Arabia) in 1853, and explored NE Africa in 1855. While seeking sources of the White Nile in E Africa, 1857–8, he discovered Lake Tanganyika (his collaborator John Speke found Lake Victoria, a Nile source). In 1861 Burton explored the GOLD COAST (W Africa). From 1861 Burton worked for the British consular service. He was a prolific author and translator. See also NILE, BRITISH INTERESTS.BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

Most businesses in the British Isles have been controlled by a single operator (so‐called ‘sole trader’, e.g., farmer, merchant, manufacturer) with unlimited liability for debts. Partnerships (typically with family or friends) have also existed, particularly in trade and industry (again with unlimited liability). In the 12th–16th centuries town craftsmen and traders often belonged to GUILDS; they regulated rather than conducted economic activity. Likewise, most OVERSEAS TRADING COMPANIES (from 14th century) regulated merchants.

JOINT‐STOCK COMPANIES were formed in England from 1553 (1567 in Scotland), capitalized by shareholders with transferable shares, and managed by directors and officers. Most received legal corporate status through a Crown charter. Mainly from the late 17th century, companies were also formed under articles of association. In Scotland, the Council for Trade, established 1661, authorized companies and granted privileges (to over 50 undertakings, 1661–1707). Companies developed ways to limit risks (e.g., in 18th century by vesting assets in trustees). Following the SOUTH SEA BUBBLE, the 1720 ‘Bubble Act’ (for Great Britain) discouraged formation of joint‐stock companies by requiring a charter or legislation. It was unenforced in Scotland, where some legal personality also became recognized for partnerships (retaining unlimited liability).

Repeal of the Bubble Act in 1825 reauthorized joint‐stock companies without charter or legislation. From 1844, UK companies could be incorporated by registration, and from 1856 most registered companies could declare LIMITED LIABILITY (using abbreviation ‘Ltd’). Registration was compulsory for larger companies from 1862. From the 1880s many partnerships became limited‐liability companies; public companies (with publicly traded shares) generally adopted limited liability. UK companies increased from 9300 in 1885 to 62,700 in 1914.

Legislation affecting partnerships began in 1890; company legislation was consolidated in 1908. From 1974 ‘public limited companies’ were distinguished (as ‘PLCs’) from private companies. After 1921, Northern and southern Ireland developed their own company law (former reintegrated with UK 2006).

BUTE, 3RD EARL OF

(b. 25 May 1713 at Edinburgh, SE Scotland; d. 10 March 1792 at London, England, aged 78). John Stuart succeeded as earl in 1723 and lived in England from 1745. In 1747 he met FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WALES (son of King GEORGE II), while attending horse races and became a favourite of the prince (d. 1751) and a confidant of his son George.

After George became king (1760; see GEORGE III), he appointed Bute as (northern) SECRETARY OF STATE (March 1761). Bute also entered the House of Lords as a Scottish representative peer. By Nov. he was chief minister, and was appointed first lord of the Treasury in May 1762, succeeding the earl of NEWCASTLE. He sought to build a non‐party ministry based on the KING’S FRIENDS.

Bute’s ministry declared war on Spain (Jan. 1762), and negotiated the Peace of PARIS, ending the SEVEN YEARS WAR (Feb. 1763). Bute then removed the surviving ministers from Newcastle’s administration. But he encountered resistance with a proposed CIDER TAX (1763). He was mercilessly satirized, especially by John WILKES. Worn down, he resigned in April 1763 (succeeded by George GRENVILLE).

The ROCKINGHAM WHIGS claimed that Bute’s ‘secret influence’ undermined later ministries, but by 1765 he was politically inactive. See also BUTE FAMILY; PITT, WILLIAM, THE ELDER.

BUTE, 2ND MARQUESS OF(b. 10 Aug. 1793 at Dumfries House, Ayrshire, Scotland; d. 18 March 1848 at Cardiff, Glamorgan, Wales, aged 54). A great‐grandson of the 3rd earl of BUTE, John Crichton Stuart inherited his grandfather's title and widespread estates in 1814, including CARDIFF and much of the S Wales coalfield. He built Cardiff's first substantial dock (opened 1839), inaugurating development that eventually resulted in Cardiff becoming the world's chief coal‐exporting port. See also BUTE FAMILY; COAL INDUSTRY, WALES.BUTE FAMILY

A Scottish noble family (a branch of the Stewart family, descended from an illegitimate son of King ROBERT II); important in Great Britain in 18th–20th centuries. Members include the prime minister in 1762–3 (see BUTE, 3RD EARL OF).

In 1766 John Stuart (1744–1814), the 3rd earl's son and heir, married the heiress of the CARDIFF Castle estate (Glamorgan, Wales) and in 1796 was created marquess of Bute. His grandson and heir, John Crichton Stuart (1793–1848), invested heavily in Cardiff (see BUTE, 2ND MARQUESS OF). John Patrick Crichton Stuart (1847–1900), the 3rd marquess, considerably rebuilt Cardiff Castle, which was presented to Cardiff in 1947 by John Crichton Stuart (1907–56), the 5th marquess.

BUTLER, JOSEPHINE(b. 13 April 1828 at Glendale, Northumberland, England; d. 30 Dec. 1906 at Wooler, Northumberland, aged 78). From a landed background, Butler in the 1850s–60s helped poor women in OXFORD, Cheltenham and LIVERPOOL, and from the late 1860s campaigned for women’s rights (e.g., education, property ownership). Convinced that the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION had disadvantaged women economically, she pressed reforming ideas in about 90 books and pamphlets. From 1869 she was a leading campaigner against the CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACTS (repealed 1886) and female prostitution although she was critical of the coercive approach of the PURITY MOVEMENT.BUTLER, ‘RAB’

(b. 9 Dec. 1902 at Attock Serai, Punjab, India; d. 8 March 1982 at Great Yeldham, Essex, England, aged 79). Richard Austen Butler (known as ‘Rab’) was a Conservative MP 1929–65, a minister in the British NATIONAL GOVERNMENT from 1931, and education minister (1941–5) in the wartime coalition. His name became associated with the 1944 Act that expanded secondary education (see BUTLER EDUCATION ACT).

After the war Butler led the Conservatives in adopting full employment and social security as central policies. The congruence with Labour was nicknamed ‘BUTSKELLISM’. Butler became a central figure in Conservative governments. His offices included chancellor of the Exchequer (1951–5), lord PRIVY SEAL (1955–7), home secretary (1957–62) and foreign secretary (1963–4). Butler failed to obtain the Party leadership in 1957 and 1963. He was created Lord Butler in 1965. See also EDEN, ANTHONY; MACMILLAN, HAROLD.

BUTLER EDUCATION ACTPopular name for the Education Act of 1944, promoted by R.A. BUTLER, president of the Board of Education, and passed by the UK Parliament for England and Wales. It divided public education into primary, secondary and further, and required education authorities to plan and provide separate secondary schools for children of all abilities. The leaving age would be raised to 15 and later 16. Other provisions included school meals and free milk. Most authorities instituted ‘multilateral’ secondary education based on selection (usually at age 11) for GRAMMAR, ‘modern’ and sometimes technical schools (as recommended by the ‘Spens Report’ of 1939) although a few pursued COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATION. See also EDUCATION, ENGLAND/WALES.BUTLER FAMILY, IRELAND

An Anglo‐Irish noble family. Its members were descended from Theobald Walter (d. 1205), who went to Ireland with Prince JOHN (1185), was given lands, and was appointed chief butler (by 1192). The post became hereditary and the family adopted the surname Butler.

In 1328 James, 7th butler (c.1305–38), was created earl of Ormond. He and his successors were dominant in E MUNSTER (S Ireland), and were rivalled in Ireland until the 16th century by only the ‘Geraldine' earls of KILDARE and DESMOND (see BUTLER–GERALDINE FEUD). James Butler (1390–1452, 4th earl from 1405) feuded with the Talbot family (see TALBOT–ORMOND FEUD). The 5th, 6th and 7th earls lived mainly in England (1450s–1515). Butler influence in Ireland was revived by the 7th earl's cousin Piers Butler (c.1467–1539, 8th earl from 1515), who served as chief governor (lord deputy) 1522–4.

James Butler (1610–88) dominated Ireland in the 1640s and 1670s–80s and was created duke of Ormond in 1661 (see ORMOND, 12TH EARL OF). His grandson and successor James Butler (1665–1745) supported King WILLIAM III and Queen ANNE, but became a Jacobite in 1715, after George I's accession, and fled abroad (Irish estates forfeited 1716). In 1721 his brother Charles Butler (1671–1758) was permitted to buy the estates and succeed as 3rd duke. He died without direct heir. The earldom of Ormond descended in another line into the 21st century. See also KILKENNY.

BUTLER–GERALDINE FEUDIn Ireland, feuding between the BUTLER FAMILY (led by the earls of Ormond) and the GERALDINES (led by the earls of Kildare and Desmond) which frequently disrupted Anglo‐Irish political life between the 1450s and 1560s. During the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT in England (1450–90s), Butlers sympathized or allied with Lancastrians, Geraldines with Yorkists. In 1522–4 Geraldines undermined the 8th earl of Ormond's governorship. In the 1560s inter‐party rivalry contributed to the First DESMOND REBELLION. See also KILDARE ASCENDANCY.BUTSKELLISMTerm denoting the consensus between leading members of the British LABOUR and CONSERVATIVE PARTIES in the 1950s in accepting the mixed economy (nationalized and private industry), WELFARE STATE and Keynesian economics (see KEYNES, J.M.). Formed from the names of ‘Rab’ BUTLER (Conservative) and Hugh GAITSKELL (Labour), the word first appeared in The Economist on 13 Feb. 1954.BUTT, ISAAC

(b. 6 Sept. 1813 at Glenfin, Co. Donegal, Ireland; d. 5 May 1879 near Dundrum, Co. Dublin, Ireland, aged 65). A (Protestant) economist and lawyer, Butt long supported the UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN but was shocked by the British government's weak response to the GREAT FAMINE (1845–9). From 1852 to 1865, as a member of the UK Parliament (Conservative, then Liberal), he attempted unavailingly to reform landholding in Ireland. He also defended participants in the RISING OF 1848 and INSURRECTION OF 1867.

These experiences led Butt to promote ‘Home Rule' (a separate Irish Parliament); in 1870 he founded the federalist HOME GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION (superseded by the HOME RULE LEAGUE, 1873). He was re‐elected to Parliament in 1871, but from 1875 was overshadowed by C.S. PARNELL. See also HOME RULE MOVEMENT, IRELAND.

BYNG, JOHN

(b. Oct. 1704 at Southill, Bedfordshire, England; d. 14 March 1757 at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, aged 52). A sailor from 1718, Byng held numerous British naval commands. In 1756, early in the SEVEN YEARS WAR, he was sent as commander with a fleet to defend MINORCA (W Mediterranean). After discovering that French troops had landed, and encountering a French fleet, he withdrew to GIBRALTAR. The British garrison on Minorca surrendered (June).

On returning to England Byng was arrested (July) and convicted of negligence (Jan. 1757), though recommended for clemency. King GEORGE II insisted on his execution (by firing squad). His role in the loss of Minorca was controversial. Many viewed him as a scapegoat for incompetence by the ministry of the duke of NEWCASTLE. The French writer Voltaire, who knew Byng, claimed his execution was simple brutality: an admiral was executed ‘to encourage the others’ (Candide, 1759).

BYRD, WILLIAM(b. 1542 or 1543, probably in London, England; d. 4 July 1623 at Stondon Massey, Essex, England, aged about 80). Though a Catholic, Byrd was a gentleman (lay singer) of the Chapel Royal (1572 until death) under the Protestant rulers ELIZABETH I and JAMES VI/I. From 1577 he lived outside London, in Middlesex, then in Essex (from 1590s). He composed music for the Church of ENGLAND as well as Catholic Mass settings and motets for RECUSANTS and secular music. He is regarded as the greatest English composer of his time. See also TALLIS, THOMAS.