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In this workplace-focused literacy-level class, the learners are newly arrived refugees from Southeast Asia, with native speakers of Burmese, Karen, Karenni, and Nepali. Approximately half are literate in their native languages that use non-Roman alphabets, and the other half have limited or no literacy skills. All learners have limited speaking and listening skills in English.

To determine the most prominent pronunciation challenges for this group of learners, the teacher carried out a simple diagnostic to analyze the pronunciation of various features in English, and to prioritize them in order of importance. After completing the diagnostic, the teacher determines that many learners do not produce consonant sounds at the ends of words, and that many speak very softly with minimal articulation of word and sentence stress. Therefore, the teacher incorporates activities focusing on these areas into the lesson planning (Table 2.3), using the predetermined lesson content: developing vocabulary to report a workplace injury.

Table 2.3 Lesson plan for final sounds, spelling-pronunciation correspondence and sentence stress in Vignette 1.

Activity with Integrated Pronunciation	Literacy Skills	Pronunciation Element
The teacher says each word as learners count the sounds on their fingers, segmenting each word into individual phonemes so that learners can clearly hear and count them (e.g., back has three sounds). The teacher distributes cards divided in three sections. Learners place a marker on the section where they hear the target sound (e.g., for Where is the /p/ in hip? the marker is placed on the final section. Where is the /h/ in hip? the marker is placed on the first section. Where is the /ɪ/ in hip? the marker is placed in the middle section).	Phonemic Awareness: Phoneme Segmentation Phonemic Awareness: Phoneme Isolation	Perception development of all sounds in target vocabulary with teacher feedback Auditory and Kinesthetic
The teacher says a body part and the learners write the last sound on mini-whiteboards, and hold it up for the teacher to see (e.g., for hand, the learners write d). The teacher engages learners in spelling the words on their mini-whiteboards, starting with the final sound and working forward.	Phonemic Awareness: Phoneme Isolation and Phonics and Spelling	Perception development of final sounds in target words with teacher feedback Auditory and Visual
The teacher introduces the question, “What’s wrong?” and the response, “I hurt my _____.” The teacher models how to emphasize the word hurt and the target body part, and minimize the words I and my, first by having the learners clap on the stressed words, then by having the them gesture on the emphasized words. The teacher then asks the class, “What’s wrong?” and holds up a picture. The class provides the prompted response; the teacher gives feedback as needed.	Vocabulary development and speaking fluency	Controlled production and practice of sentence stress with teacher feedback Kinesthetic, Auditory and Visual
Each learner receives a picture of a body part. Learners mingle and pair up; the first learner asks, “What’s wrong?” The second learner responds, “I hurt my ___,” saying the body part word indicated in their picture. The learners then switch roles. After the dialogue has been repeated, the learners trade pictures, then find a new partner.	Speaking and listening fluency	Extension of sentence stress production Auditory and Visual

Opening the Lesson: The teacher introduces parts of the body using pictures, then leads the class through a Total Physical Response (TPR) activity; the teacher issues commands (e.g., Point to your leg. Point to your head.) and the learners listen and follow the instructions. The teacher then moves to activities that build both perception and production of final consonants in target vocabulary, with the repetition and the immediate feedback from the teacher and classmates helping learners commit accurate phonological representations of the words to their long-term memory. Additionally, the perception activities help learners develop their spelling ability for later writing activities; when asked to “sound it out,” they are more acutely aware that words are made up of individual sounds that can be pulled apart to discover the spelling of a word. Most activities in the lesson do not incorporate reading or writing, instead providing multiple auditory and kinesthetic opportunities to practice target vocabulary. This allows learners to focus on perception and production of the vocabulary without interference from written text.

Vignette 2: In this pre-CNA class, high intermediate and advanced English learners develop their vocabulary and learn basic nursing skills to prepare them to successfully complete the American Red Cross (ARC) Certified Nursing Assistant Training Program. Learners come from a wide variety of geographical and linguistic backgrounds, including Southeast Asia, Western, Eastern, and Central Africa, and Central America. All have fairly strong verbal and literacy skills, but need to score at least 80% on all of the class quizzes to apply for the ARC training program.

After completing the diagnostic for the different language groups represented in the class, the teacher has determined that many learners do not accurately use word stress when using the medical terminology, making it challenging for listeners to understand the words. Additionally, many learners omit emphasis altogether or use it incorrectly, which can result in reduced comprehension for the listener. These errors occur across language groups.

The lesson focus is nutrition and making decisions about clients’ nutritional and hydration needs (Table 2.4). Learners are working on a set of 15 new words based on this topic. Learners are also practicing the use of modals to recommend verbally and in writing what they would and wouldn’t do concerning food and drink.

Table 2.4 Lesson plan for word stress and emphasis in Vignette 2.

Activity with Integrated Pronunciation	Literacy Skills	Pronunciation Element
The teacher reads the words and definitions aloud. The learners work together with their partners to bubble the stress in the target word, drawing small circles over the unstressed syllables, and a large circle over the syllable with the primary stress. Partners take turns reading the words and definitions out loud, using the correct stress pattern for target words. After each definition they rephrase it in their own words.	Vocabulary development and reading comprehension	Perception & controlled production of syllables & lexical stress with peer feedback Auditory and Visual
The teacher hands out rubber bands and leads the class through saying the vocabulary list, pulling the rubber bands on the stressed syllables. With learners in small groups, the words are written on the board. Learners quiz one another on the meaning of the words, stretching the rubber bands on the stressed syllable of the target word (e.g., What does dehydration mean? Dehydration is when there is not enough water in the body.).	Vocabulary development and speaking fluency	Controlled production and practice of lexical stress with peer feedback Auditory and Kinesthetic
The teacher models creating a sentence from an example T-chart and reading it out loud, emphasizing the modals by underlining them. The teacher leads the class in generating several sentences and saying them out loud, using the rubber bands to emphasize the stressed modals and the new information. Learners create sentences from their T-charts and read them out loud to a partner, continuing to use hand gestures (e.g., If a patient was on a NAS diet, I would check that their food tray was labeled low sodium. I wouldn’t give them extra salt with their meals.)	Grammar, writing and reading comprehension	Controlled production and practice of emphatic stress with peer feedback Auditory and Visual
Small groups are given a list of questions around nutrition and feeding scenarios. Learners take turns asking and answering the questions about what they would and wouldn’t do, explaining the reasoning behind their decisions.	Speaking fluency and listening comprehension	Extension of emphatic stress production Auditory
Learners are each given two cards describing Patient A and Patient B. Learners prepare a short presentation describing the condition and the doctor’s orders for each patient, and what they would and wouldn’t recommend for each patient based on the condition and orders. Learners annotate their presentations as needed, marking both word and emphatic stress. As homework, learners record their presentations and send them to the teacher.	Speaking fluency, listening comprehension and writing	Extension of emphatic stress production with peer feedback Auditory and Visual

Opening the Lesson: The class begins with learners working in small groups to match the new vocabulary words to their definitions. Learners pair up with a partner from a different group to compare their answers. The activities in this lesson begin with a focus on the individual vocabulary words, then shift to grammar with a focus on emphatic stress. Often during classroom activities, learners focus on the grammar and vocabulary, and lose sight of the communication aspect. The emphatic stress activities in the next section serve to draw the listeners’ ears to the contrasting information produced when learners compare what they would and would not do in various situations.