Читать книгу Your Literacy Standards Companion, Grades 6-8 - Jim Burke - Страница 81

Analogies and allusions: Analogies are those words or phrases that compare two things, often based on similar structures or qualities, to explain or clarify some other point; allusions can include, in some cases, as little as a word but often a more developed reference to an image, a story, or some passage in the Bible, for example, that the writer uses to make a point by suggesting some point of similarity (e.g., that a place was an Eden).

Connotative meanings: Words have a primary or literal meaning; some also have a secondary or connotative meaning, which implies an additional idea or feeling related to the word or phrase.

Domain-specific words and phrases: Within each discipline or branch of that discipline, certain words (cell, division) have a domain-specific use in, for example, biology; other words, however, are unique to that discipline and are, thus, essential for students to know in order to read, discuss, and write about complex texts in that subject.

Figurative meanings: Figures of speech (or figurative language) are those often colorful ways we develop of saying something; they include euphemism, hyperbole, irony, understatement, metaphor, simile, and paradox, among others. Some of them are specific to an era, region, or social group and, thus, can confuse readers.

Impact of rhymes and other repetitions of sounds: Though we associate the role sound plays more with poetry, it often plays a key role also in drama and, depending on the author’s style, in fiction. It can have a number of effects: emphasis, pleasure, association, mimicry of action, or reinforcing to imagery.

Impact of specific word choice on meaning and tone: Each word comes with its own denotative and connotative meaning which, in a piece of writing being read closely, will be in the author’s mind and, thus, one of the many tools for creating meaning and evoking a certain tone. If, for example, a writer uses a word that is very formal, archaic, or otherwise outdated, it will create in the reader’s mind a certain impression and tone that shapes how that student interprets what the author means. In short, the writer’s choices shape meaning or tone: Certain words carry added, often implied meanings; we describe these as “loaded words,” for they have the power to affect the meaning of the words around them or to influence the speaker’s tone (e.g., turning it from sincere to ironic).

Interpret: This is best understood as a way of explaining what an author wrote using more accessible, familiar language for those who lack experience with or knowledge of the subject or this type of text.

Key terms: In highly technical or scientific subjects, certain terms represent the precision and accuracy that discipline demands. In some subjects, a certain term (e.g., evolution, uncertainty, or entropy) represents a specific idea or applies to a very precise process.

Symbols: In humanities classes, a symbol suggests some greater meaning when it is attached to an idea; thus, the bald eagle symbolizes the American spirit; in science and math, however, symbols represent operations, procedures, and concepts such as change (∆) or pi (π).

Technical meanings: These would be words with specialized meanings specific to the subject being investigated, explained, or argued about; one example might be the distinctions made between political philosophies, such as libertarian and republican.

Tone: When thinking of tone, think about tone of voice. The formal tone of the Constitution matches its importance and subject; the informal tone of a literary text signals the relationship between the individuals and reveals the character of the speaker.

Words and phrases as they are used in a text: Close reading seeks to understand what the text really says; to do this, students must scrutinize the words and phrases used by the author, as they are the key to determining what the author really means or what the text says; also, they are an essential source of evidence.